Differences

This shows you the differences between two versions of the page.

Link to this comparison view

Both sides previous revision Previous revision
Last revisionBoth sides next revision
grammars_xml:grammar5 [2015/11/01 17:25] – gatherkgrammars_xml:grammar5 [2015/11/16 09:07] – Ingo Kleiber
Line 2: Line 2:
 ~~NOTOC~~  ~~NOTOC~~ 
 ====== Alexander: Young Lady and Gentleman's Guide (1833) ====== ====== Alexander: Young Lady and Gentleman's Guide (1833) ======
-Last Change: 18.08.2015, 11:50+Last Change: 16.11.2015, 10:07
  
 <code xml> <code xml>
Line 11: Line 11:
         <gr_id>5</gr_id>         <gr_id>5</gr_id>
         <gr_author_id>2</gr_author_id>         <gr_author_id>2</gr_author_id>
-        <gr_last_edit by="Gather, Kirsten">27.10.2015</gr_last_edit>+        <gr_last_edit by="Gather, Kirsten">16.11.2015</gr_last_edit>
         <gr_author>Alexander, Levy</gr_author>         <gr_author>Alexander, Levy</gr_author>
         <gr_author_gender>Male</gr_author_gender>         <gr_author_gender>Male</gr_author_gender>
Line 29: Line 29:
         <gr_type>Teaching Grammar, Entertainment Grammar</gr_type>         <gr_type>Teaching Grammar, Entertainment Grammar</gr_type>
         <gr_form>Verse</gr_form>         <gr_form>Verse</gr_form>
-        <gr_target_institution>Other</gr_target_institution> +        <gr_target_audience>Other</gr_target_audience> 
-        <gr_target_audience>Intermediate</gr_target_audience>+        <gr_level>Intermediate</gr_level>
         <gr_target_audience_author>Youth of Great Britain, Young Ladies and Gentlemen</gr_target_audience_author>         <gr_target_audience_author>Youth of Great Britain, Young Ladies and Gentlemen</gr_target_audience_author>
     </grammar_header>     </grammar_header>
Line 69: Line 69:
                 <paragraph>We are now to speak of Syntax, which sets before us rules for the proper disposition and right ordering of words in sentences, as we have before observed, so as to render the language clear, distinct, and perfectly intelligible to the reader; or, as it is not improperly called by some, Construction. It shows the regular connexion of the words, agreeably to nature, in the formation or construction of a sentence, which is, in general, more particularly regarded by the English, and some other modern nations, in the composition of their Grammars, than by the ancients. In short, we have endeavoured to be clear, explicit, and ample, without being intricate or tedious, "because we consider this part of Grammar not only as one of the most important, but that in which many good writers are most liable to err. We readily admit that the construction of the English language is in some measure irregular, and, consequently, not so easily reducible to rules which shall hold good in every case without exception; and this, we imagine, is one of the principal reasons which have induced some grammarians to omit it altogether. Mr. Johnson, whose Grammar was greatly esteemed at one period, has comprised it in ten or twelve lines; and Dr. Johnson, in the epitome prefixed to his English Dictionary, has spoken of it in fifteen lines only. Dr. Priestley has dispatched it in somewhat less than three pages; though he appears to have supplied that defect, in some measure, by the notes and observations which he has made at the end of his Grammar.</paragraph>                 <paragraph>We are now to speak of Syntax, which sets before us rules for the proper disposition and right ordering of words in sentences, as we have before observed, so as to render the language clear, distinct, and perfectly intelligible to the reader; or, as it is not improperly called by some, Construction. It shows the regular connexion of the words, agreeably to nature, in the formation or construction of a sentence, which is, in general, more particularly regarded by the English, and some other modern nations, in the composition of their Grammars, than by the ancients. In short, we have endeavoured to be clear, explicit, and ample, without being intricate or tedious, "because we consider this part of Grammar not only as one of the most important, but that in which many good writers are most liable to err. We readily admit that the construction of the English language is in some measure irregular, and, consequently, not so easily reducible to rules which shall hold good in every case without exception; and this, we imagine, is one of the principal reasons which have induced some grammarians to omit it altogether. Mr. Johnson, whose Grammar was greatly esteemed at one period, has comprised it in ten or twelve lines; and Dr. Johnson, in the epitome prefixed to his English Dictionary, has spoken of it in fifteen lines only. Dr. Priestley has dispatched it in somewhat less than three pages; though he appears to have supplied that defect, in some measure, by the notes and observations which he has made at the end of his Grammar.</paragraph>
                     <pagebreak page_no="xii"/>                     <pagebreak page_no="xii"/>
-                    <paragraph><reference author="Lowth, Robert" judgemental="1" type="reference">Bishop Lowth</reference>, who seems to have undertaken the composition of his Grammar principally with a design to explain the rules of Syntax, has, partly in his text, but still more copiously in his notes, treated the subject in a very clear and comprehensive manner; but the Grammars of the three last eminent scholars seem better calculated for men of letters than for youth at school. The Syntax of Mr. Lindley Murray's Grammar is, however, adapted to the service of both.</paragraph>+                <paragraph><reference referenced="Lowth, Robert" judgemental="1" type="reference">Bishop Lowth</reference>, who seems to have undertaken the composition of his Grammar principally with a design to explain the rules of Syntax, has, partly in his text, but still more copiously in his notes, treated the subject in <judgement type="praise" addressee_explicit="Lowth, Robert" tedency="positive">a very clear and comprehensive manner</judgement> manner; but the Grammars of the three last eminent scholars seem better calculated for men of letters than for youth at school. The Syntax of <reference type="reference" referenced="Murray, Lindley" source="English Grammar Adapted to the Different Classes of Learners, 1795" judgemental="1">Mr. Lindley Murray</reference>'s Grammar is, however, <judgement type="acknowledgment" addressee_explicit="Murray, Lindley" tedency="positive">adapted to the service of both</judgement>.</paragraph>
                 <paragraph>To impress the rules of Syntax more firmly in the student's memory, We have inserted a separate portion on the Grammatical Resolution of Sentences, in which the various parts of speech, and the dependance of one word upon another, are carefully explained, as well with regard to the construction as to the etymology. In this part, where any word occurs oftener than once in the same example, a reference is made to the former explanation of the same word; so that every example contains a full and distinct account of every word of which it is composed.</paragraph>                 <paragraph>To impress the rules of Syntax more firmly in the student's memory, We have inserted a separate portion on the Grammatical Resolution of Sentences, in which the various parts of speech, and the dependance of one word upon another, are carefully explained, as well with regard to the construction as to the etymology. In this part, where any word occurs oftener than once in the same example, a reference is made to the former explanation of the same word; so that every example contains a full and distinct account of every word of which it is composed.</paragraph>
                 <paragraph>Although we have spoken of prosody before, yet it may not be improper to observe that, while the scholar is employed in learning the rules adapted to this part, he might be exercised to advantage, by reading every day an extract from one of our best poets : indeed, it is an observation that has been frequently made, that the reading of poetry is the most effectual method of learning to read even prose with propriety and elegance.</paragraph>                 <paragraph>Although we have spoken of prosody before, yet it may not be improper to observe that, while the scholar is employed in learning the rules adapted to this part, he might be exercised to advantage, by reading every day an extract from one of our best poets : indeed, it is an observation that has been frequently made, that the reading of poetry is the most effectual method of learning to read even prose with propriety and elegance.</paragraph>
Line 76: Line 76:
             <div1 description="table_of_contents" name="Contents">             <div1 description="table_of_contents" name="Contents">
                 <heading level="1">CONTENTS.</heading>                 <heading level="1">CONTENTS.</heading>
-                ... +                <paragraph> 
-                ... +                    <toc> 
-                ... +                        <entry level="1"> 
-                ... +                            <section_name>Introduction</section_name> 
-                ...+                            <page_no>5</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="1"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Grammar in General</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>15</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="1"> 
 +                            <section_name><small_caps>Orthography</small_caps></section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>16</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Letters</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>16</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Vowels</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>16</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Double Vowels, or Diphthongs</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>18</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Treble Vowels, or Triphthongs</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>18</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Consonants</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>19</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Syllables</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>22</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="1"> 
 +                            <section_name><small_caps>Etymology</small_caps></section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>24</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of the Article</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>24</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Nouns</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>25</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="3"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Number</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>26</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="3"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Case</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>28</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="3"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Gender</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>29</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Adjectives</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>30</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Pronouns</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>31</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Verbs</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>33</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>Adverbs</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>64</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Prepositions</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>65</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Conjunctions</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>67</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Interjections</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>69</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>The Derivation of Words</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>70</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="1"> 
 +                            <section_name><small_caps>Syntax</small_caps></section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>78</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>The Construction of Articles</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>78</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name><ed_note type="addition">The Counstruction of</ed_note> Nouns</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>78</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name><ed_note type="addition">The Counstruction of</ed_note> Adjectives</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>81</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name><ed_note type="addition">The Counstruction of</ed_note> Pronouns</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>82</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name><ed_note type="addition">The Counstruction of</ed_note> Verbs</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>83</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name><ed_note type="addition">The Counstruction of</ed_note> Adverbs</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>84</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name><ed_note type="addition">The Counstruction of</ed_note> Prepositions</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>84</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name><ed_note type="addition">The Counstruction of</ed_note> Conjunctions</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>86</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name><ed_note type="addition">The Counstruction of</ed_note> Interjections</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>86</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>The Grammatical Resolution of Sentences</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>87</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="1"> 
 +                            <section_name><small_caps>Prosody</small_caps>; or the True Pronunciation of Words, and the Laws of Versification</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>92</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Accent and Quantity</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>93</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Versification ; or the Laws of Poetical Composition</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>99</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="1"> 
 +                            <section_name>The Art of Pointing</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>112</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of the Comma</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>113</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name><ed_note type="addition">Of the</ed_note> Semicolon</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>115</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name><ed_note type="addition">Of the</ed_note> Colon</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>115</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name><ed_note type="addition">Of the</ed_note> Period</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>116</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name><ed_note type="addition">Of the</ed_note> Interrogation</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>116</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name><ed_note type="addition">Of the</ed_note> Exclamation, or Admiration</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>117</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="2"> 
 +                            <section_name><ed_note type="addition">Of the</ed_note> Parenthesis</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>117</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="1"> 
 +                            <section_name>Different Characters made use of in Composition</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>117</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="1"> 
 +                            <section_name>The Use of Capital Letters</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>118</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                        <entry level="1"> 
 +                            <section_name>Of Paragraphs</section_name> 
 +                            <page_no>119</page_no> 
 +                        </entry> 
 +                    </toc> 
 +                </paragraph>
             </div1>             </div1>
         </div0>         </div0>
Line 814: Line 1005:
             </div2>                 </div2>    
             <pagebreak page_no="25"/>             <pagebreak page_no="25"/>
-            <div2 description="main_text">+            <div2 description="main_text" name="Of Number.">
                 <heading level="2">OF NOUNS.</heading>                 <heading level="2">OF NOUNS.</heading>
                 <paragraph>                 <paragraph>
-                    +                    <l>Whate'er we see, feel, hear, smell, touch, or taste,</l> 
 +                    <l>Or in the understanding's eye is placed,</l> 
 +                    <l>Nouns properly we call; for always they</l> 
 +                    <l>Some certain image to the mind convey;</l> 
 +                    <l>As man, horse, house, virtue, and happiness,</l> 
 +                    <l>And all such words as things themselves express.</l> 
 +                    <l>Of nouns two sorts we certainly do find</l> 
 +                    <l>(Expressive of the senses and the mind);</l> 
 +                    <l>The first grammarians call noun substantive,</l> 
 +                    <l>The second they declare noun adjective.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">Nouns or substantives are words used to express things themselves, that is, every thing that is the object of our several senses; of seeing, feeling, hearing, smelling, touching, tasting, reflection, and understanding; which, conveying some certain image or idea to the mind, want not the help of any other word to cause us to understand them. Thus, when we hear any one say, a man, a horse, a house, virtue, vice, happiness, &amp;c., we perfectly understand his meaning.</paragraph> 
 +<paragraph type="footnote">Nouns of the substantive kind being used to express the things themselves, it is impossible to put the word thing after them without making nonsense; for you cannot say, man thing, horse thing, virtue thing, happiness thing. But the word thing may be used with a noun adjective; as, a good thing, &amp;c.. Of adjectives we shall have occasion to speak hereafter.</paragraph></footnote></l> 
 +                <folio folio_no="C"/> 
 +                <pagebreak page_no="26"/> 
 +                    <l>Of nouns two several sorts 'tis clear there are,</l> 
 +                    <l>The common<footnote indicator="Asterisk">Common nouns or substantives stand for kinds containing many sorts or individuals under them; as, <italic>man, animal, horse, house, tree, town</italic>, &amp;c.</footnote> and the proper<footnote indicator="Dagger"> Substantives, or nouns proper, distinguish particulars or individuals; as the names of people, cities, towns, mountains, rivers, countries, &amp;c. Thus, <italic>George, London, Cambridge, Snowdon, Thames, England</italic>, &amp;c.</footnote> do declare.</l>                
                 </paragraph>                 </paragraph>
             </div2>             </div2>
 +            <div2 description="main_text" name="Of Number.">
 +                <heading level="2">OF NUMBER.</heading>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>Two different endings different numbers show,</l>
 +                    <l>And which no other part of speech does know.<footnote indicator="Double Dagger">Nouns, which signify either one or more of the same kind, must have different numbers to point out their difference: as, the <italic>singular</italic>, which confines the thing spoken of to <italic>one</italic>; and the <italic>plural</italic>, which signifies <italic>more than one</italic>.</footnote></l></paragraph>
 +                    <paragraph><l>To <italic>singular</italic> nouns we mostly add an <italic>s</italic></l>
 +                    <l>When we the <italic>plural number</italic> would express;</l>
 +                    <l>Or else <italic>es</italic>, for more harmonious sound,</l>
 +                    <l>Whene'er the singular to end is found</l>
 +                    <l>In <italic>x</italic>, <italic>ch</italic>, <italic>shy</italic> or <italic>ss</italic>,</l>
 +                        <l>As in the note most clearly we express.<footnote indicator="Section Sign">The <italic>singular</italic> number is made <italic>plural</italic> by adding <italic>s</italic>; as, <italic>tree, trees; hand, hands; prince, princes; page, pages; prize, prizes</italic>. But when the singular ends in <italic>x</italic>, <italic>ch</italic>, <italic>sh</italic>, or <italic>ss</italic>; by the addition of <italic>es</italic>; as, <italic>fox, foxes; church, churches; fish, fishes; witness, witnesses</italic>.</footnote></l></paragraph>
 +                    <paragraph><l>The following examples too are seen,</l>
 +                    <l>When for the <italic>s</italic> the plural ends in <italic>en</italic>,</l>
 +                        <l>As <italic>oxen</italic>, <italic>brethren</italic>, <italic>women</italic>, also <italic>men</italic>.</l></paragraph>
 +                    <paragraph><l>To these irregulars some more add yet;</l>
 +                    <l>As follow: <italic>mouse, mice</italic>; <italic>goose, geese</italic>; and <italic>foot, feet</italic>;</l> 
 +                    <l><italic>Tooth, teeth</italic>; <italic>die, dice</italic>; and likewise <italic>penny, pence</italic>;</l>
 +                        <l>And all such words as have a like pretence.</l></paragraph>
 +                    <paragraph><l>The nouns, whose singlars end in <italic>f</italic>, <italic>fe</italic>,</l>
 +                    <l>Their plurals have in <italic>ves</italic> we see:</l>
 +                    <l><italic>Calf, calves</italic>; <italic>sheaf, sheaves</italic>; <italic>half, halves</italic>; <italic>wife, wives</italic>;</l> 
 +                    <l><italic>Loaf, loaves</italic>; <italic>leaf, leaves</italic>; <italic>self, selves</italic>; <italic>life, lives</italic>.</l>
 +                    <pagebreak page_no="27"/>
 +                        <l>Except <italic>hoof, roof, dwarf, wharf, proof, stuff, relief</italic>,</l>
 +                        <l><italic>Ruff, cuff, skiff, muff, scurf, handkerchief</italic>, and <italic>grief</italic>.</l>
 +                    </paragraph>
 +                    <paragraph>
 +                        <l>Some nouns there are which terminate in <italic>y</italic>,</l>
 +                        <l>As may be seen in <italic>cherry, story, fly</italic>,</l>
 +                        <l>Which for the plural turn <italic>y</italic> into <italic>ies</italic>,</l>
 +                        <l>As you behold in <italic>cherries, stories, flies</italic>.</l>
 +                        <l>Except <italic>ay</italic>, <italic>ey</italic>, or <italic>oy</italic>, the sing'lar close;</l>
 +                        <l>As, <italic>day, days; key, keys; boy, boys</italic>: custom shows.</l>
 +                    </paragraph>
 +                    <paragraph>
 +                        <l>To others she, with arbitrary will,</l>
 +                        <l>Denies the claim of plural number still:</l>
 +                        <l>All <italic>proper names</italic> we in this rule contain;</l>
 +                        <l>The names of <italic>liquids</italic>, <italic>herbs</italic>, most sorts of <italic>grain</italic>,</l>
 +                        <l><italic>Spice, unctuous matter, wax, pitch, tar</italic>, and <italic>glue</italic>;</l>
 +                        <l>The names of <italic>virtues, vices, metals</italic> too.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">Under this rule we have to notice all proper names, or substantives proper, such as those of men, women, mountains, rivers, cities, towns, countries, &amp;c. (which we have adverted to before); as, <italic>Alexander the Great, Julius Cæsar, Queen Anne, George the Third, Vesuvius, Thames, Danube, London, Paris, Birmingham, England, France</italic>, &amp;c. All these deny the plural number, as is the case with the following:—</paragraph>
 +                            <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Liquids</italic>; as, <italic>wine, ale, beer, oil, milk, vinegar</italic>, &amp;c.; but when these, and many that follow, signify several sorts; they are used in the plural; as, <italic>wines, ales</italic>, &amp;c.</paragraph>
 +                            <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Herbs</italic>; as, <italic>mint, sage, rosemary, southernwood, endive, parsley</italic>; except, <italic>cabbages, potatoes, leeks, nettles</italic>, &amp;c.</paragraph>
 +                            <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Grain</italic>; as, <italic>wheat, rye, barley, darnel, bran, meal</italic>; except <italic>oats, tares, beans, peas</italic>, &amp;c.</paragraph>   
 +                            <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Spice</italic>; as, <italic>pepper, ginger, cinnamon, mace</italic>; except <italic>cloves, nutmegs</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                            <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Unctuous matter</italic>; as <italic>honey, butter, grease, wax, fat, pitch, tar, lard, bitumen, glue</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                            <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Metals</italic>; as, <italic>gold, silver, copper, lead, brass, tin, iron</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                            <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Virtues</italic>; as, <italic>prudence,justice, generosity, chastity</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                            <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Vices</italic>; as, <italic>sloth, avarice, envy, pride</italic>, &amp;c.</paragraph>
 +                            <paragraph type="footnote">To these may be added the names of abstract qualities; as, <italic>wisdom, probity, modesty, bashfulness, courage, constancy, contempt</italic>.</paragraph></footnote></l>
 +                    </paragraph>
 +                    <paragraph>
 +                        <l>Custom, to which all languages must bow,</l>
 +                        <l>Does to some nouns no singular allow.<footnote indicator="Dagger">As, <italic>annals, Alps, ashes, bowels, bellows, lungs, entrails, scissors, snuffers, shears, thanks, tongs</italic>, &amp;c.</footnote></l>
 +                    </paragraph>
 +                    <folio folio_no="C2"/>
 +                    <pagebreak page_no="28"/>
 +            </div2>
 +            <div2 description="main_text" name="Of Cases.">
 +                <heading level="2">OF CASES.</heading>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>In modern English, as in that of old,</l>
 +                    <l><italic>Two cases</italic> only do we find nouns hold;</l>
 +                    <l>The <italic>nominative</italic> is the noun alone,<footnote indicator="Asterisk">The nominative, or naming case, simply expresses the name of a thing or substance; as, <italic>a boy, a girl, a house, a city</italic>.</footnote></l>
 +                    <l>And the <italic>possessive</italic> indicates our own.<footnote indicator="Dagger"><paragraph type="footnote">The possessive case expresses the relation of property or possession; and has an apostrophe with the letter s added to the nominative, or name itself; as, <italic>man's strength, woman's beauty</italic>; that is, <italic>the strength of man, the beauty of woman</italic>. Many good writers have been of opinion, that this <italic>'s</italic> is nothing more than a contraction of the word <italic>his</italic>; but in this they are undoubtedly mistaken; for it is (as a comparison of the two languages will point out) an abbreviation of the old Saxon possessive case, which terminated in <italic>is</italic>. Thus the Saxons, to express <italic>the treachery of Judas</italic>, would have said <italic>Judas is treachery</italic>; but the <italic>i</italic> we now supply by the apostrophe.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">English nouns are therefore thus declined:
 +                        <table cols="3" rows="3">
 +                            <row role="heading">
 +                                <cell></cell>
 +                                <cell>Singular</cell>
 +                                <cell>Plural</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                            <row>
 +                                <cell role="heading">Nominative Case</cell>
 +                                <cell>A man</cell>
 +                                <cell>Men</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                            <row>
 +                                <cell role="heading">Possessive Case</cell>
 +                                <cell>Man's</cell>
 +                                <cell>Men's</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                        </table>
 +                        </paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">When the noun, whether singular or plural, terminates in <italic>s</italic>, the apostrophe only is generally inserted, and the <italic>s</italic> which marks the possessive case is omitted, especially in words which end in <italic>ss</italic>; as, singular, <italic>for righteousness' sake, for goodness' sake</italic>; plural, <italic>on eagles' wings, the stationers' company</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">We have said above that many suppose this <italic>'s</italic> to be a contraction of <italic>his</italic>, but this is erroneous; as, <italic>Mary's fan</italic> cannot mean <italic>Mary his fan</italic>: that would be nonsense.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">The English language, to express the different connexions and relations of one thing to another, uses, for the most part, prepositions; <italic>as, of, to, for, from, with, in</italic>, or <italic>by</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">The <judgement type="praise" tedency="positive">ingenious</judgement> <reference referenced="Murray, Lindley" source="English Grammar Adapted to the Different Classes of Learners, 1795, p. 37" type="quotation" judgemental="0">Mr. Lindley Murray</reference>, speaking on this subject (Grammar, p. 37), says, <quotation author="Murray, Lindley">"For the assertion, that there are in English but two cases of nouns, and three of pronouns, we have the authority of <reference referencing="Murray, Lindley" referenced="Lowth, Robert" judgemental="0" type="legitimisation">Lowth</reference>, <reference referencing="Murray, Lindley" referenced="Johnson, Samuel" judgemental="0" type="legitimisation">Johnson</reference>, <reference referencing="Murray, Lindley" referenced="Priestley, Joseph" judgemental="0" type="legitimisation">Priestley</reference>, &amp;c., names which are sufficient to decide this point. If case in Grammar mean only the variation of a noun or pronoun, by termination or within itself (as it indisputably does), with what propriety can we distinguish the relations signified by the addition of articles and prepositions. by the name of cases? On this supposition, instead of five or six cases, we shall have a number equal to the various combinations of the article and different prepositions, with the noun, since no one of them can include or represent another."</quotation></paragraph></footnote></l>
 +                    <pagebreak page_no="29"/>
 +                    <l>These two are all of which we find account;</l>
 +                    <l>Though some have made them unto six amount.</l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +            </div2>
 +            <div2 description="main_text" name="Of Gender.">
 +                <heading level="2">OF GENDER.</heading>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>Three genders in the English tongue we find,</l>
 +                    <l>The male, the female, and the neuter kind.</l>
 +                    <l>The male’s call'd masculine, as all agree,</l>
 +                    <l>Which may be seen in man, betokening he<ed_note type="correction">h</ed_note>.</l>
 +                    <l>The feminine,; as woman, meaning she:</l>
 +                    <l>But things that have not life we neuter call,</l>
 +                    <l>As table, basket, garden, house, or hall.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">In the English language there are three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter. The masculine denotes animals of the male kind, and the feminine those of the female; as,
 +                        <table cols="2" rows="15">
 +                            <row role="heading">
 +                                <cell>Masculine</cell>
 +                                <cell>Feminine</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                            <row role="data">
 +                                <cell>Man</cell>
 +                                <cell>Woman</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                            <row role="data">
 +                                <cell>Boy</cell>
 +                                <cell>Girl<ed_note type="correction">rl</ed_note></cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                            <row role="data">
 +                                <cell>Brother</cell>
 +                                <cell>Sister</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                            <row role="data">
 +                                <cell>Buck</cell>
 +                                <cell>Doe</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                            <row role="data">
 +                                <cell>Bull</cell>
 +                                <cell>Cow</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                            <row role="data">
 +                                <cell>Cock</cell>
 +                                <cell>Hen</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                            <row role="data">
 +                                <cell>Dog</cell>
 +                                <cell>Bitch</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                            <row role="data">
 +                                <cell>Drake</cell>
 +                                <cell>Duck</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                            <row role="data">
 +                                <cell>Father</cell>
 +                                <cell>Mother</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                            <row role="data">
 +                                <cell>Gander</cell>
 +                                <cell>Goose</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                            <row role="data">
 +                                <cell>Horse</cell>
 +                                <cell>Mare</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                            <row role="data">
 +                                <cell>Husband</cell>
 +                                <cell>Wife</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                            <row role="data">
 +                                <cell>Nephew</cell>
 +                                <cell>Niece</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                            <row role="data">
 +                                <cell>Wizzard</cell>
 +                                <cell>Witch</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                        </table>
 +                        </paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">But there are others which mark the gender by varying the termination of the masculine; as,
 +                            <table cols="2" rows="19">
 +                                <row role="heading">
 +                                    <cell>Masculine</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Feminine</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Abbot</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Abbess</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Abbott</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Abbess</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Actor</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Actress</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Ambassador</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Ambassadress</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Count</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Countess</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Deacon</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Deaconess</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Duke</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Duchess</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Elector</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Electress</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Emperor</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Empress</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Governor</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Governess</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Marquis</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Marchioness</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <pagebreak page_no="30"/>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Master</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Mistress</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Prince</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Princess</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Patron</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Patroness</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Poet</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Poetess</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Tutor</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Tutress</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Administrator</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Administratrix</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Executor</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Executrix</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                            </table>
 +                        </paragraph>                        
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">Sometimes the gender is pointed out by the addition of an adjective or a pronoun to the substantive; as, <italic>a male child, a female child; a he-goat, a she-goat</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">And sometimes by prefixing one noun to another, as, <italic>a manservant, a maidservant; a cock-sparrow, a hen-sparrow</italic>.
 +                        </paragraph></footnote></l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +            </div2>                
 +            <div2 description="main_text" name="Of Adjectives.">
 +                <heading level="2">OF ADJECTIVES.</heading>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>We’ve seen that <italic>nouns</italic> the <italic>things</italic> themselves express</l> 
 +                    <l>But <italic>adjectives</italic> their <italic>qualities</italic> confess,</l>
 +                    <l>And on the nouns exclusive depend,</l>
 +                    <l>For without them no sense do they pretend:</l>
 +                    <l>As, <italic>red, black, white, swift, crooked, round</italic>, and <italic>square</italic>,</l> 
 +                    <l>Must, to be understood, to nouns adhere.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">We have before observed that nouns express the things themselves, but adjectives are used to show the manner or quality of those things; as, <italic>a</italic> good <italic>man</italic>, <italic>a</italic> bad <italic>man</italic>, <italic>a</italic> black <italic>horse</italic>, <italic>a</italic> white <italic>horse</italic>, <italic>a</italic> round <italic>table</italic>, <italic>a</italic> square <italic>table</italic>, &amp;c.</footnote></l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l><italic>Thing</italic>, that to follow nouns we find refuse,</l>
 +                    <l>Doth after adjectives good sense diffuse;</l>
 +                    <l>As <italic>black thing, white thing, good thing</italic>, may convince;</l>
 +                    <l><italic>This</italic> makes <italic>that</italic> understood, and be good sense.</l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>In adjectives no different numbers are,</l>
 +                    <l>As their unvaried endings do declare.</l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>Whene’er two nouns compounded we perceive,</l>
 +                    <l>The first is always deem'd an adjective.<footnote indicator="Dagger">Various nouns assume the nature of adjectives; as, <italic>sea-fish, self-love, home-made, self-murder, wine-vessel, meadow-ground</italic>, &amp;c.</footnote></l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>Most adjectives by two degrees do rise,</l>
 +                    <l>Or fall as much in number, bulk, or price,</l>
 +                    <l>By adding at the end <italic>r</italic>, <italic>er</italic>, or <italic>est</italic>,</l>
 +                    <l>Which by some little words is else expressed;</l>
 +                    <pagebreak page_no="31"/>
 +                    <l>As, <italic>wise, wiser, wisest</italic>; also <italic>most wise</italic>;</l>
 +                    <l>But <italic>very</italic> oft the place of <italic>most</italic> supplies.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">There are commonly reckoned three degrees of comparison; the positive, comparative, and superlative.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">The <italic>positive</italic> state expresses the quality of an object, but without any increase or diminution; as, <italic>good, wise, great</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">The <italic>comparative</italic> degree increases or lessens the signification of the positive state of the adjective; as, <italic>wiser</italic>, or <italic>more wise</italic>; <italic>Less wise</italic>, or <italic>not so wise</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">The <italic>superlative</italic> increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree; as, <italic>wisest</italic>, or <italic>most wise</italic>; <italic>least wise</italic>.</paragraph></footnote></l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>Some few alone irregular are found,</l>
 +                    <l>And in comparison change name and sound.<footnote indicator="Dagger"><paragraph type="footnote">Some adjectives are very irregular in their form; as, 
 +                            <table cols="3" rows="7">
 +                                <row role="heading">
 +                                    <cell>Positive</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Comparative</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Superlative</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Good</cell>
 +                                    <cell>better</cell>
 +                                    <cell>best</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Bad</cell>
 +                                    <cell>worse</cell>
 +                                    <cell>worst</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Little</cell>
 +                                    <cell>less</cell>
 +                                    <cell>least</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Much, Many</cell>
 +                                    <cell>more</cell>
 +                                    <cell>most</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Near</cell>
 +                                    <cell>nearer</cell>
 +                                    <cell>nearest, or next</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="data">
 +                                    <cell>Late</cell>
 +                                    <cell>later</cell>
 +                                    <cell>latest, or last</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                            </table>
 +                   </paragraph></footnote></l>
 +                    <l><italic>Superlatives</italic> do end sometimes in <italic>most</italic>,</l>
 +                    <l><italic>Comparatives</italic> in <italic>er</italic>; as, <italic>nether, nethermost</italic>.</l>
 +                </paragraph>                
 +            </div2>
 +            <div2 description="main_text" name="Of Pronouns.">
 +                <heading level="2">OF PRONOUNS.</heading>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>Some words there are which take the place of nouns.</l> 
 +                    <l>And these the learn'd agree to call <italic>pronouns</italic>.<footnote indicator="Double Dagger">As it is often necessary to repeat what we have to say concerning any person or thing, the frequency of the same words occurring would be very disagreeable to the ear; to avoid which, there are, in all known languages, certain words established to supply their place, and remove this indecorum; and these words are generally styled <italic>pronouns</italic>, because they stand for nouns.</footnote></l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>Three persons only every language claims,</l>
 +                    <l>And we express them by the following names</l>
 +                    <l><italic>I</italic>, <italic>thou</italic>, and <italic>he, she, it</italic>; <italic>we</italic>, <italic>ye</italic>, and <italic>they</italic>;</l>
 +                    <l>If you to these add <italic>who</italic> and <italic>what</italic>, you may.</l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>To pronouns, then, two numbers we allow,</l>
 +                    <l>A <italic>leading</italic> and a <italic>following state</italic> to know;</l>
 +                    <l>Beside th' <italic>objective</italic>, as you see below.</l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <pagebreak page_no="32"/>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>The <italic>leading state</italic> is <italic>I</italic>; the <italic>following, mine</italic>;</l>
 +                    <l>Th' <italic>objective</italic>, <italic>me</italic>, grammarians define.</l>
 +                    <l>These to the singular do all belong;</l>
 +                    <l>And now the plural must be shown as strong:</l>
 +                    <l>The <italic>following state</italic> is <italic>ours</italic>; the <italic>leading</italic>, <italic>we</italic>;</l>
 +                    <l>Th' <italic>objective state</italic> is <italic>us</italic>, as all agree.</l>
 +                    <l>First, second, and third persons, these do claim,<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">Personal pronouns are, <italic>I, thou, he, she, it</italic>; with their plurals, <italic>we, ye, they</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">These personal pronouns admit of person, number, gender, and case or state.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">The persons are three, both in the singular and plural number; as
 +                            <table cols="3" rows="4">
 +                                <row role="heading">
 +                                    <cell></cell>
 +                                    <cell>Singular</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Plural</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row>
 +                                    <cell role="heading">First Person</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">I</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">We</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row>
 +                                    <cell role="heading">Second Person</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Thou</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Ye, or you</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row>
 +                                    <cell role="heading">Third Person</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">He, she, it</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">They</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                            </table>
 +                        </paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">
 +                            Personal pronouns have three states or cases, and are thus declined:
 +                            <heading_undefined>First Person</heading_undefined>
 +                            <table cols="3" rows="4">
 +                                <row role="heading">
 +                                    <cell></cell>
 +                                    <cell>Singular</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Plural</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row>
 +                                    <cell role="heading">Nom.</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">I</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">We</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row>
 +                                    <cell role="heading">Possessive</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Mine</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Ours</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row>
 +                                    <cell role="heading">Objective</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Me</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Us</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                            </table>
 +                            <heading_undefined>Second Person</heading_undefined>
 +                            <table cols="3" rows="4">
 +                                <row role="heading">
 +                                    <cell></cell>
 +                                    <cell>Singular</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Plural</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row>
 +                                    <cell role="heading">Nom.</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Thou</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Ye, or you</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row>
 +                                    <cell role="heading">Possessive</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Thine</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Yours</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row>
 +                                    <cell role="heading">Objective</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Thee</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">You</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                            </table>
 +                            <heading_undefined>Third Person</heading_undefined>
 +                            <table cols="5" rows="5">
 +                                <row role="heading">
 +                                    <cell></cell>
 +                                    <cell>Singular</cell>
 +                                    <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell>
 +                                    <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell>
 +                                    <cell>Plural</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row role="heading">
 +                                    <cell></cell>
 +                                    <cell>Masc.</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Fem.</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Neuter</cell>
 +                                    <cell>Masc. &amp; Fem.</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row>
 +                                    <cell role="heading">Nom.</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">He</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">She</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">It</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">They</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row>
 +                                    <cell role="heading">Possessive</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">His</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Hers</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Its</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Theirs</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row>
 +                                    <cell role="heading">Objective</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Him</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Her</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">It</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Them</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                            </table>
 +                        </paragraph></footnote></l>
 +                    <l>But <italic>what</italic> and <italic>it</italic> refuse to change their name.</l>
 +                    <l>Beside the personal pronouns some there are,</l>
 +                    <l>Which in the notes below we shall declare.<footnote indicator="Dagger"><paragraph type="footnote">Pronouns are divided into several other classes; as, possessive, relative, and demonstrative.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote"><small_caps>Possessive Pronouns</small_caps> are such as principally relate to possession or property. Of these there are seven; viz. <italic>my, thy, his, her, our, your, their</italic>. Instead of <italic>my</italic> and <italic>thy</italic>, it was formerly the custom to use <italic>mine</italic> and <italic>thine</italic> before a vowel or silent <italic>h</italic>; as, <italic>Blot out all</italic> mine <italic>iniquities</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote"><small_caps>Relative Pronouns</small_caps> are certain words which relate to some substantive going before; as, <italic>The</italic> man <italic>is happy</italic> who <italic>lives virtuously</italic>; and are therefore generally termed the antecedent. Relatives are <italic>who</italic>, <italic>which</italic>, <italic>what</italic>, and <italic>that</italic>. <italic>Who</italic> is of both numbers, and is thus declined:
 +                            <table cols="2" rows="4">
 +                                <row role="heading">
 +                                    <cell></cell>
 +                                    <cell>Sing. &amp; Plur.</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row>
 +                                    <cell role="heading">Nom.</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Who</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row>
 +                                    <cell role="heading">Possessive</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Whose</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                                <row>
 +                                    <cell role="heading">Objective</cell>
 +                                    <cell role="data">Whom</cell>
 +                                </row>
 +                            </table>
 +<italic>What</italic> is a kind of compound, including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to <italic>that which</italic>; as, <italic>That is</italic> what <italic>I wanted</italic>; that is, <italic>the thing which</italic> I wanted. <italic>Who</italic> is applied to persons, <italic>which</italic> to animals or inanimates. <italic>That</italic>, as a relative, is often used to prevent the too frequent use of <italic>who</italic> and <italic>which</italic>. <italic>Who</italic>, <italic>which</italic>, and <italic>what</italic>, are called interrogatives when they are used in asking questions; as, <italic>Who is there? Which of them? What are you doing?</italic></paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote"><small_caps>Demonstratives</small_caps> are such as point out with precision the subjects to which they relate: <italic>this</italic> and <italic>that</italic>, <italic>these</italic> and <italic>those</italic>, are of this class; as, <italic>this</italic> is true charity, <italic>that</italic> is only its resemblance. <italic>This</italic> has reference to the nearest person or thing; <italic>that</italic>, to the more remote or distant.</paragraph></footnote></l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +            </div2>    
 +            <pagebreak page_no="33"/>
 +            <div2 description="main_text" name="Of Verbs">
 +                <heading level="2">OF VERBS.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">A verb is a part of speech which is, as it were, the soul of language, for no sentence can subsist without it, because nothing can be spoken that is either affirmed or denied without its assistance.</footnote></heading>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>A <small_caps>Verb</small_caps> (or <small_caps>Affirmation</small_caps>) we shall show</l>
 +                    <l>Affirmeth something, and does <italic>number</italic> know,</l> 
 +                    <l><italic>Mood</italic>, <italic>time</italic>, and <italic>person</italic>; whether it express</l>
 +                    <l><italic>Action</italic>, <italic>being</italic>, <italic>passion</italic>; or their want confess.<footnote indicator="Dagger">
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">A verb (or affirmation), as the latter term imports, affirms some attribute, with the designation of <italic>mood</italic>, <italic>time</italic>, <italic>number</italic>, and <italic>person</italic>, and expresses <small_caps>being</small_caps>, <small_caps>doing</small_caps>, or <small_caps>suffering</small_caps>, or the want of them, or the like; that is, how or in what manner one person or thing is acted upon or affected by another; thus, <small_caps>being</small_caps> or <small_caps>existing</small_caps>; as, <italic>I am</italic>: <small_caps>doing</small_caps>, or <small_caps>action</small_caps>; as, <italic>I love</italic>: <small_caps>suffering</small_caps> or <small_caps>passion</small_caps>; as, <italic>I am loved</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">A verb has two <italic>numbers</italic>: the singular, <italic>I love</italic>; and the plural, <italic>we love</italic>.</paragraph></footnote></l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>By <italic>moods</italic>, or <italic>modes</italic>, particular forms we learn,</l>
 +                    <l>Which every youth should carefully discern:</l>
 +                    <pagebreak page_no="34"/>
 +                    <l>They make the plan of every verb quite plain,</l>
 +                    <l>And students reap the most consummate gain.</l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>Five <italic>moods</italic> the learn'd, in general, do hold;</l>
 +                    <l>(That boys should learn them they need not be told.)</l> 
 +                    <l>Th' <italic>indicative</italic>, <italic>potential</italic>, <italic>subjunctive</italic>,</l>
 +                    <l><italic>Imperative</italic>, and the <italic>infinitive</italic>,</l>
 +                    <l>Comprise them all, as you will soon perceive.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">A <small_caps>mood</small_caps> or <small_caps>mode</small_caps> (from the Latin <italic>modus</italic>, a manner) is a particular form of the verb, pointing out the manners in which the <italic>being</italic>, <italic>action</italic>, or <italic>passion</italic> is represented.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">There are generally reckoned five moods; viz. the <italic>indicative</italic>, <italic>potential</italic>, <italic>subjunctive</italic>, <italic>imperative</italic>, and <italic>infinitive</italic>. These, words, or names of the moods, are derived from the Latin, <italic>indicativus</italic>, showing or affirming; <italic>potentialis</italic>, existing in possibility, having the power of; <italic>subjunctivus</italic>, subjoined; <italic>imperativus</italic>, commanding; and <italic>infinitivus</italic>, affirming. Hence,</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">The <italic>indicative mood</italic> simply indicates, shows, affirms, or declares a thing; as, <italic>I love</italic>; or it asks a question, as, <italic>Do I love?</italic></paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">The <italic>potential mood</italic> implies possibility, or liberty, power, will, or obligation; as, <italic>I may love</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">The <italic>subjunctive mood</italic> represents a thing under a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &amp;c.; and is preceded by a conjunction; as, <italic>if</italic> or <italic>though I love</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">The <italic>imperative mood</italic> is used for commanding, exhorting, intreating, or permitting; as, <italic>love thou</italic>, or <italic>do thou love</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">The <italic>infinitive mood</italic> expresses or affirms a thing in a general or unlimited manner, without any distinction of number or person; as, <italic>to love</italic>.</paragraph></footnote></l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l><italic>Three times</italic> we in the English language know,</l>
 +                    <l>As <italic>present</italic>, <italic>past</italic>, and <italic>future</italic> clearly show.</l>
 +                    <l>The <italic>present</italic>, <italic>love</italic>; the <italic>past</italic>, <italic>have loved</italic> does make;</l>
 +                    <l>And the <italic>first future</italic>, <italic>shall</italic> or <italic>will</italic> does take.</l>
 +                    <l>To these <italic>three</italic> other <italic>times</italic> put in a claim,</l>
 +                    <l>These we shall first enumerate by name:</l>
 +                    <l>Th' <italic>imperfect past</italic> assumes <italic>did love</italic> or <italic>loved</italic>;</l>
 +                    <l>But <italic>more than past</italic> we find to be <italic>had loved</italic>.</l>
 +                    <l>The <italic>second future</italic> we shall find appear</l>
 +                    <l>In <italic>shall</italic> or <italic>will have loved</italic>: this is most clear.<footnote indicator="Dagger"><paragraph type="footnote"><small_caps>Time</small_caps> or <small_caps>tense</small_caps> (from the Latin word <italic>tempus</italic>, which signifies <italic>time</italic>) is the distinction of time, and might seem only to admit the <italic>present</italic>, which is the verb itself; as, <italic>I love</italic>; the past, as, <italic>I have loved</italic>; and the future, as, <italic>I shall</italic> or <italic>will love</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">But the times or tenses are usually made five or six; which last number we shall adopt: these are,</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">1. The <italic>present time</italic>, which represents an action or event as doing or passing at the time in which it is mentioned, without any other limitation; as, <italic>I love</italic>, or <italic>I do love</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">2. The <italic>imperfectly past time</italic> represents the action or event, either as past and completed, or as remaining unfinished at a certain time past; as, <italic>I loved</italic>, or <italic>was then loving</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">3. The <italic>past</italic>, or <italic>perfect</italic>, or <italic>perfectly past time</italic>, represents the action as completely finished, and not only refers to what is past or finished, but also conveys an allusion to the present time; as, <italic>I have loved</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">4. The <italic>more than past time</italic>, or <italic>pluperfect tense</italic>, represents the action, not only as past or finished, but also as finished before some other point of time specified in the sentence; as, <italic>I had loved</italic>. Some grammarians distinguish the three past times by the names of the <italic>first</italic>, <italic>second</italic>, and <italic>third preterites</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">5. The <italic>first future time</italic>, or <italic>future imperfectly past</italic>, represents the action as yet to come, either with or without respect to the precise time when; as, <italic>I shall</italic> or <italic>will love</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">6. The <italic>second future time</italic>, or <italic>future perfectly past</italic>, represents the action as yet to come, intimating that it will be fully accomplished, at or before the time of another future action or event; as, <italic>I shall have loved</italic>.</paragraph>
 +                        <paragraph type="footnote">It may be necessary to observe that the two first of the above times or tenses, viz. the present and the imperfectly past, are called simple times, the former being the verb itself in its most simple or original form, and the latter being made by the addition of <italic>d</italic> or <italic>ed</italic> to the former; so that they are formed of the verb itself, without the assistance of any other verb. The four last, viz: the past or perfect, the more than past, and the first and second future times, are called compound times, because they cannot be formed without the assistance of some other verb as an auxiliary.</paragraph></footnote></l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <pagebreak page_no="35"/>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    The <italic>personal pronouns</italic> persons do express;
 +                    As, <italic>I</italic>, <italic>thou</italic>, <italic>he</italic>; <italic>we</italic>, <italic>ye</italic>, and <italic>they</italic> confess.
 +                    With these their various endings too agree,
 +                    As we by <italic>love</italic>, <italic>lovest</italic>, and <italic>loves</italic> may see.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">There are three persons both in the singular and plural numbers of verbs, which are the personal pronouns placed before the verb; as,
 +                        <table cols="3" rows="4">
 +                            <row role="heading">
 +                                <cell></cell>
 +                                <cell>Singular</cell>
 +                                <cell>Plural</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                            <row>
 +                                <cell role="heading">First person</cell>
 +                                <cell role="data">I love <italic>or</italic> do love,</cell>
 +                                <cell role="data">We love <italic>or</italic> do love.</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                            <row>
 +                                <cell role="heading">Second person</cell>
 +                                <cell role="data">Thou lovest <italic>or</italic> dost love,</cell>
 +                                <cell role="data">Ye love <italic>or</italic> do love.</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                            <row>
 +                                <cell role="heading">Third person</cell>
 +                                <cell role="data">He loves <italic>or</italic> does love,</cell>
 +                                <cell role="data">They love <italic>or</italic> do love.</cell>
 +                            </row>
 +                        </table>
 +                    </paragraph></footnote>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <pagebreak page_no="36"/>                
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>The <italic>participle</italic> from the verb’s derived,</l>
 +                    <l>But like an <italic>adjective</italic> appears contrived.</l>
 +                    <l>These <italic>being, doing, suffering, time</italic>, imply,</l>
 +                    <l>Like verbs, but show indeed a quality.</l>
 +                    <l>Some end in <italic>ing</italic>, and some in <italic>n, t, d</italic>;</l>
 +                    <l>As <italic>loving, roving, slain, taught, lov'd</italic>; we see:</l>
 +                    <l>Thus, <italic>loving woman</italic>, and <italic>a swelling main</italic>,</l>
 +                    <l><italic>A well taught boy, lov'd girl, a bullock slain</italic>.</l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l><small_caps>Nine Auxiliaries</small_caps> are of general use,</l>
 +                    <l>And various meanings in the rest produce;</l>
 +                    <l><italic>Do</italic>, <italic>will</italic>, and <italic>shall</italic>, <italic>must</italic>, <italic>ought</italic>, and <italic>may</italic>,</l>
 +                    <l><italic>Have</italic>, <italic>am</italic>, or <italic>be</italic>, this doctrine will display.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">The auxiliaries will be conjugated hereafter.</footnote></l>
 +                    <l>For these necessity, or power, or will,</l>
 +                    <l>And time, or duty, are expressing still.</l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l><italic>Do</italic> does the present time with force express,</l>
 +                    <l>And <italic>did</italic> imperfect past shows with no less.</l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l><italic>Will</italic> is the present, <italic>would</italic> imperfect past,</l>
 +                    <l>But when before some other verbs they're cast,</l>
 +                    <l>The future time by both is well express'd.</l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>The same rule holds of <italic>shall</italic> and <italic>should</italic>, we know,</l>
 +                    <l>And each the future time as well doth show.</l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>In the first person simply <italic>shall</italic> foretels;</l>
 +                    <l>In <italic>will</italic> a threat or else a promise dwells.</l>
 +                    <l><italic>Shall</italic> in the second and the third does threat;</l>
 +                    <l><italic>Will</italic> simply then foretels the future feat.</l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>The <italic>future time</italic> does absolutely note</l>
 +                    <l>Both <italic>shall</italic> and <italic>will</italic>; but <italic>would</italic> and <italic>should</italic> do not,</l>
 +                    <l>But with condition, future time express;</l>
 +                    <l>Which difference they every where confess.</l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l><italic>May</italic> does the right or possibility,</l>
 +                    <l>And <italic>can</italic> the agent's power to do, imply.</l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>Whenever <italic>have</italic> possession does denote,</l>
 +                    <l>These verbs it doth admit, else it does not.</l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>Both <italic>am</italic> and <italic>be</italic> do in their native sense</l>
 +                    <l>Being import; but then they do dispense</l>
 +                    <l>The verb connected to the adjective,</l>
 +                    <l>That <italic>suff'ring</italic> we most readily perceive.</l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <pagebreak page_no="37"/>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>Where’er these helping verbs a verb precede,</l> 
 +                    <l>The endings of the following have no need</l>
 +                    <l>To change at all; but those must vary still,</l>
 +                    <l>The use of personal endings to fulfil.</l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>But when the <italic>present</italic> ends in <italic>d</italic> or <italic>t</italic>,</l>
 +                    <l><italic>Imperfect past</italic> the same we always see.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">As, <italic>present time</italic>, I spread; <italic>imperfectly past</italic>, I spread; <italic>present</italic>, I slit; <italic>imperfect</italic>, I slit.</footnote></l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>Other exceptions to this rule we find,</l>
 +                    <l>Which to a future list will be consign'd.<footnote indicator="Dagger">These will be given in our observations on irregular verbs, after the examples of verbs conjugated regularly.</footnote></l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +                <paragraph>
 +                    <l>Whene'er two verbs we find together braced,</l>
 +                    <l><italic>To</italic> hath between its station always placed.<footnote indicator="Double Dagger">As, <italic>I love to read</italic>. <italic>I dare fight</italic>, for <italic>I dare to fight</italic>.</footnote></l>
 +                </paragraph>
 +            </div2>
 +
 +
                                  
 +
 +
             </div1>             </div1>