~~NOCACHE~~ ~~NOTOC~~ ====== Alexander: Young Lady and Gentleman's Guide (1833) ====== Last Change: 20.01.2016 5 2 20.01.2016 Alexander, Levy Male The Young Lady and Gentleman's Guide to the Grammar of the English Language, in Verse; Adapted to the Use of Seminaries and Private Families Young Lady and Gentleman's Guide L. Alexander, Printer, 277, Whitechapel Road; J. Haddon, Printer, Castle-street, Finsbury London 1833 1835 2 119 English British English Teaching Grammar, Entertainment Grammar Verse Other Intermediate Youth of Great Britain, Young Ladies and Gentlemen THE YOUNG LADY AND GENTLEMAN'S GUIDE TO THE GRAMMAR OF THE English Language, IN VERSE; ADAPTED TO THE USE OF SEMINARIES AND PRIVATE FAMILIES. BY L. ALEXANDER, Typ. Lond. Author of the Hebrew Ritual; the Life of Benjamin Goldsmid, Esq., &c "A verse will find him who a Sermon flies."- Dr. Watts. LONDON: PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR; AND S0LD BY SHERWOOD, GILBERT, AND PIPER, PATERNOSTER ROW, AND ALL BOOKSELLERS. 1835. J. Haddon, Printer, Castle-street, Finsbury. TO THE YOUTH OF GREAT BRITAIN. Youthful Readers, In this age of improvement, I have ventured to lay a trap, in order, if possible, to attract you to the study of your mother tongue; a study the most important, and indispensable to your future respectability and usefulness in society. In the work here dedicated to you, by one who seeks your welfare, you will find both amusement and instruction. The most familiar ideas are rendered into verse, and the rules of languages, where it was not practicable to reduce them to Poetry, are explained and illustrated in copious Notes. To you, on whom the future destiny of our nation so much depends, this little Work is dedicated, by Your humble servant, THE AUTHOR. Introduction. Many and various have been the attempts of the learned to render the acquirement of the English language easy to youth; many Grammars have been written; much has been said on the subject; and many systems have been laid before the public, all of which possess some excellencies peculiar to the plans adopted by their respective authors. Bishop Lowth's, Dr. Priestley's, and the Rev. Mr. Lindley Murray's Grammars, have been deservedly esteemed, and much used; but those eminent men themselves, when they were instructed in Latin, learned the principal part of the language from rules composed in verse, that (because found most efficacious in fixing the rules on their memory) being the method adopted in all the Grammar schools, not only in this country, but in all the nations of Europe. And the rules in the Greek Grammar used at Westminster are also composed in verse. If, then, it be found so generally necessary and advantageous to imprint the rules of the Roman and Greek languages on the minds of youth, we are at a loss to conceive why a similar advantage might not be expected to arise from adopting the same method to instil into the minds of the rising generation the grammatical principles of the English language; and the more especially when we consider that children will get in memory a hundred lines of poetry in much less time than they will be able to accomplish a fourth part of that number if written in prose. Besides, it is the practice of our most celebrated and eminent schoolmasters to furnish their pupils with pieces of poetry to get in their minds, so that they may be rehearsed at the periods of their vacations; and those who have poetical extracts.to imprint on their memories receive the task with .pleasure, and perform their duty with alacrity, while those who have extracts in prose assigned them receive the mandate with dread, and labour hard to acquit themselves with decency. Such considerations have, therefore, induced us to lay before a discerning public a Grammar of the language we now speak in the most easy, familiar, and compendious method that we could possibly contrive. Nor have we rejected the usual terms of grammar, for the sake of introducing others, but. have accommodated our language to the common appellations of noun substantive, adjective, pronoun, verb, &c. And that every part of this Guide to the Grammar of the English Language might be serviceable and instructive to young ladies and gentlemen, we have been at some pains to put all the rules into as smooth and sonorous verse as the nature of the subject would allow, so that nothing might appear obscure or unintelligible; and, to throw greater light on the various parts, we have, under every rule, where it seemed necessary, added an explanation in prose by way of note, which method has been adopted by some learned grammarians on the Continent, whose grammars have met with general approbation. It must, however, be acknowledged that, from the nature of the examples, it was frequently necessary to introduce some of the verses run less harmoniously than the rest; but we believe it will be seen that the number of them is not great. In all our researches we have never met with any solid objection against this method of conveying information, for its superior excellence is evident from the very nature of the thing; and we see outlines of grammar, and explanations of some arithmetical rules and tables, exhibited on cards, which have been found useful in their way. Hence it is abundantly clear, that verse is by far more easily learned, and better retained in memory than prose; and English verse, by reason of the rhymes, yields a much greater assistance to the learner than Latin verse, because the sound of the end of one line reminds the person of a similar sound in the other of the same couplet. And we are the more fully confirmed in our opinion on this subject, by what an excellent author of good reputation has advanced concerning this mode of conveying information: "All men paid great respect to the poets," says he, “who gave them so delightful an entertainment. The wiser sort took this opportunity of civilizing the rest, by putting all their theological and philosophical instructions into verse, which, being learned with pleasure and retained with ease, helped to heighten and preserve the veneration already, upon other scores, paid to the poets." By the mode here laid down, no young person will be under the necessity of burdening his memory with any thing more than is absolutely necessary to furnish him with a sufficient knowledge of the principles of his mother tongue, an acquaintance with which is so requisite in all the transactions of life. Since nothing can be more proper to acquire a just knowledge of any art or science than a clear and judicious method, we have taken particular care, in the following work, to pay strict attention to all the rules of the several parts of grammar, according to the best models. Thus, we have treated, First, of Orthography, which relates to letters, syllables, and words; showing the names, sounds, and properties of the several letters of the alphabet, their combinations into syllables, and the formation of syllables into words. Secondly, Etymology, which has relation to the several parts of speech, showing their inflections or variations; and likewise the manner in which they are derived. Thirdly, Syntax, or Construction, which is the right ordering of words in a sentence, so as to render the meaning clear, distinct, and intelligible. And, fourthly, Prosody, which has regard to the accent or true pronunciation of words, and the laws of versification, all which has been attended to in a more particular manner than is to be found in any other grammar. And we may, without vanity, assert that none of the public schools in this country, and perhaps in Europe, has a course of Prosody equal to that which is here laid before the student. We have here laid down rules for marking the several accents or quantities of words, and what each sort of verse requires; but, for a fuller and more ample elucidation of this subject, we refer the student to the rules and observations which we have given in that part of our Grammar which treats of prosody. It may, however, be necessary to speak somewhat more particularly; and we must therefore observe that, in the composition of the following Grammar, as before hinted, we have paid strict attention to the terms usually given by the best and most celebrated grammarians to the different parts of speech, because we are fully convinced of the justness of the observation which has been made by some of our predecessors, that it would be a very trifling, as well as a very dangerous attempt, to teach the art of English Grammar in a new language. In treating of the conjugation of verbs, we have thought it most advisable to present the scholar with an active and a passive verb regularly conjugated, without interruption, through all the moods, tenses, numbers, and persons; except in the appellations of the tenses, which we have thought proper to turn into English, because it is not to be supposed, that a mere English student should fully comprehend the meaning of the terms generally employed, which are borrowed from the Latin. Thus, we have called the present tense the present time or tense; the preter-imperfect, the imperfectly past; the preterite or preter-perfect, the perfectly past; the preter-pluperfect, more than past; the future-imperfect tense we have denominated the first future, or future imperfectly past; and the future-perfect tense we have called the second future, or future perfectly past; which terms, we think there can be no doubt, will be much better understood by the mere English student than those which are derived from any foreign language. On the subject of the derivation of words, which is an essential part of Etymology, we have thought fit to be rather particular, because it is as necessary that the learner should be acquainted with the proper derivation of one word from another, as it is that he should know what part of speech it belongs to. We are aware that several plans have been laid down for pointing out the derivation of words in the English, but, notwithstanding what has been advanced on this head, we may venture to say that the method contained in the following work will be found less liable to exception than that of most other grammarians. We are now to speak of Syntax, which sets before us rules for the proper disposition and right ordering of words in sentences, as we have before observed, so as to render the language clear, distinct, and perfectly intelligible to the reader; or, as it is not improperly called by some, Construction. It shows the regular connexion of the words, agreeably to nature, in the formation or construction of a sentence, which is, in general, more particularly regarded by the English, and some other modern nations, in the composition of their Grammars, than by the ancients. In short, we have endeavoured to be clear, explicit, and ample, without being intricate or tedious, "because we consider this part of Grammar not only as one of the most important, but that in which many good writers are most liable to err. We readily admit that the construction of the English language is in some measure irregular, and, consequently, not so easily reducible to rules which shall hold good in every case without exception; and this, we imagine, is one of the principal reasons which have induced some grammarians to omit it altogether. Mr. Johnson, whose Grammar was greatly esteemed at one period, has comprised it in ten or twelve lines; and Dr. Johnson, in the epitome prefixed to his English Dictionary, has spoken of it in fifteen lines only. Dr. Priestley has dispatched it in somewhat less than three pages; though he appears to have supplied that defect, in some measure, by the notes and observations which he has made at the end of his Grammar. Bishop Lowth, who seems to have undertaken the composition of his Grammar principally with a design to explain the rules of Syntax, has, partly in his text, but still more copiously in his notes, treated the subject in a very clear and comprehensive manner manner; but the Grammars of the three last eminent scholars seem better calculated for men of letters than for youth at school. The Syntax of Mr. Lindley Murray's Grammar is, however, adapted to the service of both. To impress the rules of Syntax more firmly in the student's memory, We have inserted a separate portion on the Grammatical Resolution of Sentences, in which the various parts of speech, and the dependance of one word upon another, are carefully explained, as well with regard to the construction as to the etymology. In this part, where any word occurs oftener than once in the same example, a reference is made to the former explanation of the same word; so that every example contains a full and distinct account of every word of which it is composed. Although we have spoken of prosody before, yet it may not be improper to observe that, while the scholar is employed in learning the rules adapted to this part, he might be exercised to advantage, by reading every day an extract from one of our best poets : indeed, it is an observation that has been frequently made, that the reading of poetry is the most effectual method of learning to read even prose with propriety and elegance. CONTENTS. Introduction 5 Of Grammar in General 15 Orthography 16 Of Letters 16 Of Vowels 16 Of Double Vowels, or Diphthongs 18 Of Treble Vowels, or Triphthongs 18 Of Consonants 19 Of Syllables 22 Etymology 24 Of the Article 24 Of Nouns 25 Of Number 26 Of Case 28 Of Gender 29 Of Adjectives 30 Of Pronouns 31 Of Verbs 33 Adverbs 64 Of Prepositions 65 Of Conjunctions 67 Of Interjections 69 The Derivation of Words 70 Syntax 78 The Construction of Articles 78 The Counstruction of Nouns 78 The Counstruction of Adjectives 81 The Counstruction of Pronouns 82 The Counstruction of Verbs 83 The Counstruction of Adverbs 84 The Counstruction of Prepositions 84 The Counstruction of Conjunctions 86 The Counstruction of Interjections 86 The Grammatical Resolution of Sentences 87 Prosody; or the True Pronunciation of Words, and the Laws of Versification 92 Of Accent and Quantity 93 Of Versification ; or the Laws of Poetical Composition 99 The Art of Pointing 112 Of the Comma 113 Of the Semicolon 115 Of the Colon 115 Of the Period 116 Of the Interrogation 116 Of the Exclamation, or Admiration 117 Of the Parenthesis 117 Different Characters made use of in Composition 117 The Use of Capital Letters 118 Of Paragraphs 119 AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN VERSE. Of Grammar in General. Grammar doth all the art most truly teach, According to the use of every speech, How we our thoughts most justly may express, In words together join’d in sentences.Grammar, therefore, is the art of communicating our thoughts by words in the plainest and most intelligible manner, and with the strictest propriety, both in speaking and writing. It is called an art, because it consists of certain rules, drawn from the observations of learned men upon the works of the best authors. And it is emphatically termed the art of communicating our thoughts by words, because they are other methods of conveying our ideas, such as looks, gestures, pointing, &c. English Grammar is, consequently, the art of writing and speaking the English language with propriety and correctness. Into Four Parts the learn'd this art divide, The first, Orthography, we must decide; Which treats of letters, syllables, and words, Showing, by rules, what most with each accords: The second, Etymology, extends To parts of speech, and rules for them commends; Likewise of words it shows how they’re derived, By which the English tongue so much has thrived: Syntax, the third, on sentences does dwell, Showing how they are form'd in language well: The fourth, and last, is called Prosody, And treats of accent and of poetry. ORTHOGRAPHY. Of Letters. A letter is an uncompounded sound, Of which there no division can be found:A letter, therefore, is a character, or mark, which denotes the various motions or positions of the instruments of speech, either in producing or terminating sounds: or, letters are marks or signs, which express the several sounds made use of in conveying our thoughts to each other in speech. These sounds to certain characters we fix, Which in the English tongue are twenty-six. The Alphabet. Roman Italic Name a a ay b b bee c c ceejee d d dee e e ee f f ef g g jee h h aitch i i eye j j jay k k kay l l el m m em n n en o o o p p pee q q kew r r ar s s ess t t tee u u you v v vee w w double you x x eks y y wy z z zed
Of Vowels. Under two heads the letters must be plac'd; The first holds vowels, consonants the last. A vowel by itself complete is found. Made in the throat, one full and perfect sound,A vowel is a simple articulate sound, formed by the impulse of the voice, and by opening the mouth in a particular manner; being thereby perfectly pronounced without the aid of any other letter. Five letters only we can vowels call, For a, e, i, o, u, comprise them all.Although we have said that a, e, i, o, u, contain the whole of the vowels, yet w and y, when at the end of syllables or words, are vowels also; but when they begin words or syllables they are consonants To each of these two different sounds belong; One that is short, another that is long: Five double vowels add, to fill the vocal throng. Beside the long and short, to a does fall A sound that's broad, as in all, call, and ball. A's short when single consonants conclude, Or two such letters in the midst intrude, Or seem in sound to take the middle part; But final e doth length to these impart: Thus a is short in bat, likewise in battle, Mad, mangle, man, cat, can, and cattle. 'Tis always short in habit, dragon, banish, And longer words, as natural, evanish. Whenever silent e is in the close, Then a is long we rightly do suppose; As will appear in bat, bate, can, and cane, In bad, bade; mad, made; man, mane; ban, and bane. E is of different sound, and various use, Silent itself, all vowels does produce; Although 'tis mute, yet sometimes it is found To lengthen ev'en its own preceding sound, As we in scene and glebe, and others find; But e is mostly of the shorter kind; As in wet, let, well, met, and rest, And fret, help, left, bed, den, and blest. I before r doth sound like u; as, flirt, Likewise in first, thirst, skirt, third, sir, and dirt; I before r another sound does suit, As in irreverent, irresolute. It sounds like ee, as may be seen, In words like these, machine and magazine. And yet to sound like y it does incline, In joint, appoint, boil, broil, toil, moil, and join. No English word can end in naked i, But in its stead we always put a y. O doth express more sorts of sound than one, Long o in go, but like short u in son. Two sounds in u we easily do find; Rub's of the shorter, muse the longer kind. Of Double Vowels, or Diphthongs. When of two vowels the compounded sound Completely in one syllable is found, Of both partaking, yet distinct from all, This we a proper double vowel call; But if the sound of one be heard alone, 'Tis then improperly so called, we own, Though of the proper it before were one. Sev'n proper double vowels we allow, (At th' end of words place ay, ey, oy, and ow) These are ai, au, ee, ei, oi, oo, and ou, Thus, fair, laud, feed, heir, voice, house, bay, and boy, Prey, they, snow, know, below, embay, decoy. Improper diphthongs ten we have in view; Aa, ea, eo, ei, ie, oa, oe, ue, ui, eu. These ev'ry youth may easily discern, Especially if he's inclin'd to learn. Of Treble Vowels, or Triphthongs. Three vowels too will sometimes be combined In one soft sound; but few of these we find: Thus, eau in beauty; ieu in lieu, Adieu; and iew in view. Of Consonants. A consonant no proper sound obtains, But from its sounding with the name it gains; And yet it varies every vowel's sound, Whether before, or after it, 'tis found. B one unvaried sound doth always claim; Beginning, middle, end, 'tis all the same; Thus, baker, butler, rubber, and debase, Rhubarb and curb, and all words in such case. But yet it silent is in debtor, thumb, Doubt, subtle, lamb, as also debt and dumb. C the hard sound of k will ever keep Before a, o, u, l, and r; as creep, Cloth, cup, cost, cat. Before e, i, and y, Or an apostrophe, which doth e imply, It mostly takes the softer sound of s, As centre, civil, cymbal, do confess. When final c without an e is found, 'Tis hard; but silent e gives softer sound. C before h sounds tch, as church, Chalk, cherry, chance, chip, chin and lurch. But sometimes it doth sound like k; as chart, Scheme, chorus, distich, which a little art Will soon point out; and foreign names will show The same, as Achish, Enoch place in view. Ch like sh sounds, as in the words machine, And chaise and chevalier, likewise chagrin. D one unvarying sound doth always choose At first, in midst, and at the last to use. F the same certain rule doth follow, As faithful, forfeit, fortune, fallow. G alters with the vowel oft its sound; 'Tis soft 'fore e or i, else hard is found. When g doth close a word 'tis hard, as snug, Bag, key, gig, frog, sing, ring, drug, dug, and pug, G before n resigns its sound, as feign, Gnash, gnaw, impugn, gnat, sign, vignette, and deign. Gh the sound of f takes oft in th' end,As, laugh, cough, tough, enough, and rough. But sometimes it is dropp'd the sound to mend.As in high, right, plough, mighty, bright, sight. H, though deny'd a letter oft before, We justly to the alphabet restore.H is forcibly pronounced in habit, habitation, halo, ham, hand, hard, harvest, hatred, head, heart, heed, here, heaven, hell, highness, history, &c.; but it is silent after r, as rhetoric, rhubarb, rheumatism. J always has the softer sound of g; As jargon, jocund, jointure, jeopardy. K sounds hard c 'fore vowels i and e, As in the words king, kingdom, kine, and key; But before n it has no sound, we trow, As knave, knife, knight, knock, knuckle, knowledge, know. L has a liquid sound, but that is soft, As in love, ballad, billow, coal, and loft. But l is sometimes mute, as calf, half, talk, Likewise in psalm, could, would, calves, halves, and walk. M never varies in the least its sound, As in man, manner, mummy, will be found. N keeps its sound in man, none, noble, tend, But after m 'tis mute when at the end. The same sound always we observe in P, As print and paper, parchment, prop, and pea. 'Tis mute in psalter, psalm, and Ptolemy, And tempt, prompt, vampt, when between m and t. Ph sounds f, as in geography, Phoenix, phenomenon, philosophy. Ph sometimes, howe'er, is dropp'd withal, In phthisis, phthisic, and in phthisical. Ph in Stephen too is spoke like v, Likewise in nephew, as you here do see. Q, it doth seem, is always sounded kew, And ne'er is penn'd without a following u. To R a sound that's rough doth most obtain, As rage, rife, wretched, radish, rural, rain; But yet it hath a softer one, as bird, And bard, card, warmer, colder, darker, curd The genuine sound of S must be acute And hissing; but the close that does not suit; There 'tis obscure, and is pronounc’d like zed, And also 'twixt two vowels, as pleased. The sound of s is lost in the words isle, Demesne and island, viscount and Carlisle. T before i, t' another vowel join'd, Sounds like the sharp and hissing s we find; As nation, station, also expiation, Expatiate, propitiate, vexation. But when an s or x doth ti precede, For its own sound it earnestly doth plead; As fustian, question, mixtion, bestial, Commixtion, and the word celestial. V to the f by nature is allied, And to its final has e always tied. To W two natures do belong; 'Tis consonant and vowel in our tongue: The first begins all words, yet none can end, The latter for the close doth most contend. Its sound 'fore r is lost or very weak, As wrap and wrangle, wrong, wry, write, and wreak. And the same right that w demands, Y doth require, according as it stands. Three sev'ral sounds we now must give to X, Like z in Xerxes; in exit like ks; Like gz sometimes, as in exultation, Exude, example, and exaggeration,Generally, when a vowel follows ex it is sounded like gz; but if a consonant follow, it sounds like ks. The Z a double consonant always is, And strongly tinctur’d with the sound of s; As zeal and zany, zealot, zealously, And buzzard, quizzer, zone, zoology. These the chief sounds of all the letters are, As the examples given do declare. Of Syllables. A syllable's a short and perfect sound, Where'er a single, or a double vowel's found; Or either join'd with consonants, and spoke In one entire breathing, as in smoke.A syllable is a complete and perfect sound, uttered in one breath, by a single impulse of the voice, which sometimes consists of one vowel, or double vowel; and sometimes of one vowel, or double vowel, joined to one or more consonants. Hence a single vowel may compose a syllable, as the first syllable in the following words: a-bandon, e-jectment, i-deal, o-pium, u-nion; but no number of consonants can be sounded without the aid of a vowel. As many vowels as emit a sound, So many syllables in words are found.Except any of those vowels be silent, as the final e, and some others, which compose improper double vowels or dipththongs, together with the e which is added to some syllables in the middle of words, for the purpose of lengthening the sound of the foregoing vowel, as rarely, rudely; except also words ending in es, without s preceding e (whether in the singular or plural number); as, Sing. James, inclines, refines; Plur. names, trades, groves, &c. But if s or the sound of s precede es, it makes another syllable; as, horse, horses; prince, princes; face, faces; prize, prizes. When any single consonant is seen, Single or double vowels plac’d between, The consonant divideth with the last, But to the first the p and x join fast.A single consonant between two vowels must be joined to the latter syllable; as, de-light, bri-dal, re-form. From this rule p and x are excepted; as, up-on, ex-act. In compound words its own will each retain, Deriv'd compounds new endings must obtain. In all compounded and derivative words, the single or primitive words retain their own letters. A compound word is either composed of two distinct words; as, in-to, up-on, thank-ful, coach-man, sap-less, up-hold, where-by, with-in, with-out, with-draw, &c.; or, it is made up of one word, which is called a primitive, and a syllable placed before it, which is called a particle of preposition, because it is set before the word: such are ad, en, in, un, de, dis, per, pre, re, sub, trans, &c.; whence arise such words as these, ad-equate, en-trap, in-connexion, un-bred, de-part, dis-avow, per-chance, pre-science, re-admit, sub-urb, trans-form, &c. A derivative compound word is that which comes from some other word, and is formed by an additional ending; such as, ed, en, ess, est, eth, edst, er, ing, ish, ist, ly, ous; thus, paint-ed, gold-en, count-ess, read-est, speak-eth, deliver-edst, hear-er, talk-ing, fool-ish, art-ist, covet-ous, kind-ly; in which, and all others of a similar kind, the primitive words retain their own letters. The consonants preceding l and r, Follow'd by e, never divided are.As, affa-ble, tri-fle, mi-tre. Examples to this rule seem to be included in the following. Two consonants between two vowels plac'd, Fit to begin a word, go to the last. But those which can no word at all commence, Ne'er can a syllable, without offence.When two consonants, proper to begin a word, come between two vowels, they belong to the latter syllable; as, Bl Able Cl Bar-na-cle Pl Ca-ta-plasm Sl A-sleep Br A-broach Cr A-cre Dr Be-drench Fr A-fraid Gr A-gree Pr Ca-price Tr Me-trical Wr A-wry Ch Ba-che-lor Dw Be-dwarf Gn Be-gnaw Fl A-float Gl De-glu-ti-ti-on Kn Be-know Sc De-scribe Sh A-shore Sm Be-smear Sn Be-snub Sp A-spire Sq A-squint St A-stro-no-my Sw For-swear Th A-thwart Tw Be-tween Wh Mean-while
To this rule, however, as well as to the former, this exception holds, that compound words keep each its part, and additional endings form distinct syllables. And where two consonants occur together that are not proper to begin a word, the former belongs to the first syllable, the latter to the last; as, Ld Seldom Lt Mul-ti-ply Mp Trum-pet Nd En-dorse Nj Un-just Rd Ar-dent Bb Dib-ber Cc Ac-cord Gg Swagger
And many others. But when three or more consonants meet in the middle of a word, the first consonant generally belongs to the first vowel, and the others to the latter; as, Ntr Con-tract Ppr Op-press Mpr Com-pre-hend Xpl Ex-plode Nstr In-struct
And others. Two vowels meeting, each with its full sound, Always to make two syllables are bound. If two vowels occur in the middle of a word, each of them having its full and proper sound, they must be divided; as, Re-en-ter Co-a-li-tion Co-o-pe-ra-tion Pro-nun-ci-a-ti-on Ac-tu-ate Ac-cen-tu-a-ti-on
This is the case wherever they do not form a diphthong. ETYMOLOGY. Observe, that Etymology extends To parts of speech, and rules for them commends; Likewise of words it shows how they're deriv’d, By which the English tongue so much has thriv'd. It shows the variations of each part, And is a principal grammatic art. The parts of speech we find in number nine, And each of them, we now shall here define. And, first, the Article will surely own The foremost place; then noun, pronoun; Then verb, and participle follow on; With adverb, and the preposition; Conjunction's next in place, without a doubt, But interjection some would do without. Of the Article. Before a noun the article must be Plac'd to restrict it, as below yon see: There are but two, viz. a or an and the. A or an is called an indefinite article, because it is used in a vague sense, to point out one single thing of a kind; as, a man, that is, any man; a town, that is, any town: an apple, an orchard. Here observe, that a is used before a consonant, and an before a vowel, which rule must always be followed. The is called the definite article, because it distinguishes some particular person or thing; as, Give me the book, that is, the particular book. A or an can be joined to nouns in the singular number only; but the may be joined also to plurals. These little words placed before nouns are of great importance, as may be seen in the following examples: thus, the son of a bishop; the son of the bishop; a son of the bishop. Each of these sentences has a meaning peculiar to itself, through the different application of those little words called articles. Again: "Extirpate the root that produces a thorn, But nourish the tree on which fruitage is borne. Extinguish the lamp of a tyrant with speed; The one better die than the people should bleed." OF NOUNS. Whate'er we see, feel, hear, smell, touch, or taste, Or in the understanding's eye is placed, Nouns properly we call; for always they Some certain image to the mind convey; As man, horse, house, virtue, and happiness, And all such words as things themselves express. Of nouns two sorts we certainly do find (Expressive of the senses and the mind); The first grammarians call noun substantive, The second they declare noun adjective.Nouns or substantives are words used to express things themselves, that is, every thing that is the object of our several senses; of seeing, feeling, hearing, smelling, touching, tasting, reflection, and understanding; which, conveying some certain image or idea to the mind, want not the help of any other word to cause us to understand them. Thus, when we hear any one say, a man, a horse, a house, virtue, vice, happiness, &c., we perfectly understand his meaning. Nouns of the substantive kind being used to express the things themselves, it is impossible to put the word thing after them without making nonsense; for you cannot say, man thing, horse thing, virtue thing, happiness thing. But the word thing may be used with a noun adjective; as, a good thing, &c.. Of adjectives we shall have occasion to speak hereafter. Of nouns two several sorts 'tis clear there are, The commonCommon nouns or substantives stand for kinds containing many sorts or individuals under them; as, man, animal, horse, house, tree, town, &c. and the proper Substantives, or nouns proper, distinguish particulars or individuals; as the names of people, cities, towns, mountains, rivers, countries, &c. Thus, George, London, Cambridge, Snowdon, Thames, England, &c. do declare. OF NUMBER. Two different endings different numbers show, And which no other part of speech does know.Nouns, which signify either one or more of the same kind, must have different numbers to point out their difference: as, the singular, which confines the thing spoken of to one; and the plural, which signifies more than one. To singular nouns we mostly add an s When we the plural number would express; Or else es, for more harmonious sound, Whene'er the singular to end is found In x, ch, shy or ss, As in the note most clearly we express.The singular number is made plural by adding s; as, tree, trees; hand, hands; prince, princes; page, pages; prize, prizes. But when the singular ends in x, ch, sh, or ss; by the addition of es; as, fox, foxes; church, churches; fish, fishes; witness, witnesses. The following examples too are seen, When for the s the plural ends in en, As oxen, brethren, women, also men. To these irregulars some more add yet; As follow: mouse, mice; goose, geese; and foot, feet; Tooth, teeth; die, dice; and likewise penny, pence; And all such words as have a like pretence. The nouns, whose singlars end in f, fe, Their plurals have in ves we see: Calf, calves; sheaf, sheaves; half, halves; wife, wives; Loaf, loaves; leaf, leaves; self, selves; life, lives. Except hoof, roof, dwarf, wharf, proof, stuff, relief, Ruff, cuff, skiff, muff, scurf, handkerchief, and grief. Some nouns there are which terminate in y, As may be seen in cherry, story, fly, Which for the plural turn y into ies, As you behold in cherries, stories, flies. Except ay, ey, or oy, the sing'lar close; As, day, days; key, keys; boy, boys: custom shows. To others she, with arbitrary will, Denies the claim of plural number still: All proper names we in this rule contain; The names of liquids, herbs, most sorts of grain, Spice, unctuous matter, wax, pitch, tar, and glue; The names of virtues, vices, metals too.Under this rule we have to notice all proper names, or substantives proper, such as those of men, women, mountains, rivers, cities, towns, countries, &c. (which we have adverted to before); as, Alexander the Great, Julius Cæsar, Queen Anne, George the Third, Vesuvius, Thames, Danube, London, Paris, Birmingham, England, France, &c. All these deny the plural number, as is the case with the following:— Liquids; as, wine, ale, beer, oil, milk, vinegar, &c.; but when these, and many that follow, signify several sorts; they are used in the plural; as, wines, ales, &c. Herbs; as, mint, sage, rosemary, southernwood, endive, parsley; except, cabbages, potatoes, leeks, nettles, &c. Grain; as, wheat, rye, barley, darnel, bran, meal; except oats, tares, beans, peas, &c. Spice; as, pepper, ginger, cinnamon, mace; except cloves, nutmegs. Unctuous matter; as honey, butter, grease, wax, fat, pitch, tar, lard, bitumen, glue. Metals; as, gold, silver, copper, lead, brass, tin, iron. Virtues; as, prudence,justice, generosity, chastity. Vices; as, sloth, avarice, envy, pride, &c. To these may be added the names of abstract qualities; as, wisdom, probity, modesty, bashfulness, courage, constancy, contempt. Custom, to which all languages must bow, Does to some nouns no singular allow.As, annals, Alps, ashes, bowels, bellows, lungs, entrails, scissors, snuffers, shears, thanks, tongs, &c. OF CASES. In modern English, as in that of old, Two cases only do we find nouns hold; The nominative is the noun alone,The nominative, or naming case, simply expresses the name of a thing or substance; as, a boy, a girl, a house, a city. And the possessive indicates our own.The possessive case expresses the relation of property or possession; and has an apostrophe with the letter s added to the nominative, or name itself; as, man's strength, woman's beauty; that is, the strength of man, the beauty of woman. Many good writers have been of opinion, that this 's is nothing more than a contraction of the word his; but in this they are undoubtedly mistaken; for it is (as a comparison of the two languages will point out) an abbreviation of the old Saxon possessive case, which terminated in is. Thus the Saxons, to express the treachery of Judas, would have said Judas is treachery; but the i we now supply by the apostrophe. English nouns are therefore thus declined: Singular Plural Nominative Case A man Men Possessive Case Man's Men's
When the noun, whether singular or plural, terminates in s, the apostrophe only is generally inserted, and the s which marks the possessive case is omitted, especially in words which end in ss; as, singular, for righteousness' sake, for goodness' sake; plural, on eagles' wings, the stationers' company. We have said above that many suppose this 's to be a contraction of his, but this is erroneous; as, Mary's fan cannot mean Mary his fan: that would be nonsense. The English language, to express the different connexions and relations of one thing to another, uses, for the most part, prepositions; as, of, to, for, from, with, in, or by. The ingenious Mr. Lindley Murray, speaking on this subject (Grammar, p. 37), says, "For the assertion, that there are in English but two cases of nouns, and three of pronouns, we have the authority of Lowth, Johnson, Priestley, &c., names which are sufficient to decide this point. If case in Grammar mean only the variation of a noun or pronoun, by termination or within itself (as it indisputably does), with what propriety can we distinguish the relations signified by the addition of articles and prepositions. by the name of cases? On this supposition, instead of five or six cases, we shall have a number equal to the various combinations of the article and different prepositions, with the noun, since no one of them can include or represent another." These two are all of which we find account; Though some have made them unto six amount. OF GENDER. Three genders in the English tongue we find, The male, the female, and the neuter kind. The male’s call'd masculine, as all agree, Which may be seen in man, betokening heh. The feminine,; as woman, meaning she: But things that have not life we neuter call, As table, basket, garden, house, or hall. In the English language there are three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter. The masculine denotes animals of the male kind, and the feminine those of the female; as, Masculine Feminine Man Woman Boy Girlrl Brother Sister Buck Doe Bull Cow Cock Hen Dog Bitch Drake Duck Father Mother Gander Goose Horse Mare Husband Wife Nephew Niece Wizzard Witch
But there are others which mark the gender by varying the termination of the masculine; as, Masculine Feminine Abbot Abbess Abbott Abbess Actor Actress Ambassador Ambassadress Count Countess Deacon Deaconess Duke Duchess Elector Electress Emperor Empress Governor Governess Marquis Marchioness Master Mistress Prince Princess Patron Patroness Poet Poetess Tutor Tutress Administrator Administratrix Executor Executrix
Sometimes the gender is pointed out by the addition of an adjective or a pronoun to the substantive; as, a male child, a female child; a he-goat, a she-goat. And sometimes by prefixing one noun to another, as, a manservant, a maidservant; a cock-sparrow, a hen-sparrow. OF ADJECTIVES. We’ve seen that nouns the things themselves express But adjectives their qualities confess, And on the nouns exclusive depend, For without them no sense do they pretend: As, red, black, white, swift, crooked, round, and square, Must, to be understood, to nouns adhere.We have before observed that nouns express the things themselves, but adjectives are used to show the manner or quality of those things; as, a good man, a bad man, a black horse, a white horse, a round table, a square table, &c. Thing, that to follow nouns we find refuse, Doth after adjectives good sense diffuse; As black thing, white thing, good thing, may convince; This makes that understood, and be good sense. In adjectives no different numbers are, As their unvaried endings do declare. Whene’er two nouns compounded we perceive, The first is always deem'd an adjective.Various nouns assume the nature of adjectives; as, sea-fish, self-love, home-made, self-murder, wine-vessel, meadow-ground, &c. Most adjectives by two degrees do rise, Or fall as much in number, bulk, or price, By adding at the end r, er, or est, Which by some little words is else expressed; As, wise, wiser, wisest; also most wise; But very oft the place of most supplies.There are commonly reckoned three degrees of comparison; the positive, comparative, and superlative. The positive state expresses the quality of an object, but without any increase or diminution; as, good, wise, great. The comparative degree increases or lessens the signification of the positive state of the adjective; as, wiser, or more wise; Less wise, or not so wise. The superlative increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree; as, wisest, or most wise; least wise. Some few alone irregular are found, And in comparison change name and sound.Some adjectives are very irregular in their form; as, Positive Comparative Superlative Good better best Bad worse worst Little less least Much, Many more most Near nearer nearest, or next Late later latest, or last
Superlatives do end sometimes in most, Comparatives in er; as, nether, nethermost. OF PRONOUNS. Some words there are which take the place of nouns. And these the learn'd agree to call pronouns.As it is often necessary to repeat what we have to say concerning any person or thing, the frequency of the same words occurring would be very disagreeable to the ear; to avoid which, there are, in all known languages, certain words established to supply their place, and remove this indecorum; and these words are generally styled pronouns, because they stand for nouns. Three persons only every language claims, And we express them by the following names I, thou, and he, she, it; we, ye, and they; If you to these add who and what, you may. To pronouns, then, two numbers we allow, A leading and a following state to know; Beside th' objective, as you see below. The leading state is I; the following, mine; Th' objective, me, grammarians define. These to the singular do all belong; And now the plural must be shown as strong: The following state is ours; the leading, we; Th' objective state is us, as all agree. First, second, and third persons, these do claim,Personal pronouns are, I, thou, he, she, it; with their plurals, we, ye, they. These personal pronouns admit of person, number, gender, and case or state. The persons are three, both in the singular and plural number; as Singular Plural First Person I We Second Person Thou Ye, or you Third Person He, she, it They
Personal pronouns have three states or cases, and are thus declined: First Person Singular Plural Nom. I We Possessive Mine Ours Objective Me Us
Second Person Singular Plural Nom. Thou Ye, or you Possessive Thine Yours Objective Thee You
Third Person Singular Singular Singular Plural Masc. Fem. Neuter Masc. & Fem. Nom. He She It They Possessive His Hers Its Theirs Objective Him Her It Them
But what and it refuse to change their name. Beside the personal pronouns some there are, Which in the notes below we shall declare.Pronouns are divided into several other classes; as, possessive, relative, and demonstrative. Possessive Pronouns are such as principally relate to possession or property. Of these there are seven; viz. my, thy, his, her, our, your, their. Instead of my and thy, it was formerly the custom to use mine and thine before a vowel or silent h; as, Blot out all mine iniquities. Relative Pronouns are certain words which relate to some substantive going before; as, The man is happy who lives virtuously; and are therefore generally termed the antecedent. Relatives are who, which, what, and that. Who is of both numbers, and is thus declined: Sing. & Plur. Nom. Who Possessive Whose Objective Whom
What is a kind of compound, including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to that which; as, That is what I wanted; that is, the thing which I wanted. Who is applied to persons, which to animals or inanimates. That, as a relative, is often used to prevent the too frequent use of who and which. Who, which, and what, are called interrogatives when they are used in asking questions; as, Who is there? Which of them? What are you doing? Demonstratives are such as point out with precision the subjects to which they relate: this and that, these and those, are of this class; as, this is true charity, that is only its resemblance. This has reference to the nearest person or thing; that, to the more remote or distant. OF VERBS.A verb is a part of speech which is, as it were, the soul of language, for no sentence can subsist without it, because nothing can be spoken that is either affirmed or denied without its assistance. A Verb (or Affirmation) we shall show Affirmeth something, and does number know, Mood, time, and person; whether it express Action, being, passion; or their want confess. A verb (or affirmation), as the latter term imports, affirms some attribute, with the designation of mood, time, number, and person, and expresses being, doing, or suffering, or the want of them, or the like; that is, how or in what manner one person or thing is acted upon or affected by another; thus, being or existing; as, I am: doing, or action; as, I love: suffering or passion; as, I am loved. A verb has two numbers: the singular, I love; and the plural, we love. By moods, or modes, particular forms we learn, Which every youth should carefully discern: They make the plan of every verb quite plain, And students reap the most consummate gain. Five moods the learn'd, in general, do hold; (That boys should learn them they need not be told.) Th' indicative, potential, subjunctive, Imperative, and the infinitive, Comprise them all, as you will soon perceive. A mood or mode (from the Latin modus, a manner) is a particular form of the verb, pointing out the manners in which the being, action, or passion is represented. There are generally reckoned five moods; viz. the indicative, potential, subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive. These, words, or names of the moods, are derived from the Latin, indicativus, showing or affirming; potentialis, existing in possibility, having the power of; subjunctivus, subjoined; imperativus, commanding; and infinitivus, affirming. Hence, The indicative mood simply indicates, shows, affirms, or declares a thing; as, I love; or it asks a question, as, Do I love? The potential mood implies possibility, or liberty, power, will, or obligation; as, I may love. The subjunctive mood represents a thing under a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c.; and is preceded by a conjunction; as, if or though I love. The imperative mood is used for commanding, exhorting, intreating, or permitting; as, love thou, or do thou love. The infinitive mood expresses or affirms a thing in a general or unlimited manner, without any distinction of number or person; as, to love. Three times we in the English language know, As present, past, and future clearly show. The present, love; the past, have loved does make; And the first future, shall or will does take. To these three other times put in a claim, These we shall first enumerate by name: Th' imperfect past assumes did love or loved; But more than past we find to be had loved. The second future we shall find appear In shall or will have loved: this is most clear.Time or tense (from the Latin word tempus, which signifies time) is the distinction of time, and might seem only to admit the present, which is the verb itself; as, I love; the past, as, I have loved; and the future, as, I shall or will love. But the times or tenses are usually made five or six; which last number we shall adopt: these are, 1. The present time, which represents an action or event as doing or passing at the time in which it is mentioned, without any other limitation; as, I love, or I do love. 2. The imperfectly past time represents the action or event, either as past and completed, or as remaining unfinished at a certain time past; as, I loved, or was then loving. 3. The past, or perfect, or perfectly past time, represents the action as completely finished, and not only refers to what is past or finished, but also conveys an allusion to the present time; as, I have loved. 4. The more than past time, or pluperfect tense, represents the action, not only as past or finished, but also as finished before some other point of time specified in the sentence; as, I had loved. Some grammarians distinguish the three past times by the names of the first, second, and third preterites. 5. The first future time, or future imperfectly past, represents the action as yet to come, either with or without respect to the precise time when; as, I shall or will love. 6. The second future time, or future perfectly past, represents the action as yet to come, intimating that it will be fully accomplished, at or before the time of another future action or event; as, I shall have loved. It may be necessary to observe that the two first of the above times or tenses, viz. the present and the imperfectly past, are called simple times, the former being the verb itself in its most simple or original form, and the latter being made by the addition of d or ed to the former; so that they are formed of the verb itself, without the assistance of any other verb. The four last, viz: the past or perfect, the more than past, and the first and second future times, are called compound times, because they cannot be formed without the assistance of some other verb as an auxiliary. The personal pronouns persons do express; As, I, thou, he; we, ye, and they confess. With these their various endings too agree, As we by love, lovest, and loves may see.There are three persons both in the singular and plural numbers of verbs, which are the personal pronouns placed before the verb; as, Singular Plural First person I love or do love, We love or do love. Second person Thou lovest or dost love, Ye love or do love. Third person He loves or does love, They love or do love.
The participle from the verb’s derived, But like an adjective appears contrived. These being, doing, suffering, time, imply, Like verbs, but show indeed a quality. Some end in ing, and some in n, t, d; As loving, roving, slain, taught, lov'd; we see: Thus, loving woman, and a swelling main, A well taught boy, lov'd girl, a bullock slain. Nine Auxiliaries are of general use, And various meanings in the rest produce; Do, will, and shall, must, ought, and may, Have, am, or be, this doctrine will display.The auxiliaries will be conjugated hereafter. For these necessity, or power, or will, And time, or duty, are expressing still. Do does the present time with force express, And did imperfect past shows with no less. Will is the present, would imperfect past, But when before some other verbs they're cast, The future time by both is well express'd. The same rule holds of shall and should, we know, And each the future time as well doth show. In the first person simply shall foretels; In will a threat or else a promise dwells. Shall in the second and the third does threat; Will simply then foretels the future feat. The future time does absolutely note Both shall and will; but would and should do not, But with condition, future time express; Which difference they every where confess. May does the right or possibility, And can the agent's power to do, imply. Whenever have possession does denote, These verbs it doth admit, else it does not. Both am and be do in their native sense Being import; but then they do dispense The verb connected to the adjective, That suff'ring we most readily perceive. Where’er these helping verbs a verb precede, The endings of the following have no need To change at all; but those must vary still, The use of personal endings to fulfil. But when the present ends in d or t, Imperfect past the same we always see.As, present time, I spread; imperfectly past, I spread; present, I slit; imperfect, I slit. Other exceptions to this rule we find, Which to a future list will be consign'd.These will be given in our observations on irregular verbs, after the examples of verbs conjugated regularly. Whene'er two verbs we find together braced, To hath between its station always placed.As, I love to read. I dare fight, for I dare to fight. THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. Previously to our giving examples of the conjugation or inflexions of verbs, we must observe that there are three kinds of them, namely, Active, Passive, and Neuter. An Active verb denotes an action, and necessarily supposes an agent, and an object acted upon; as,I love; I love Caroline. A Passive verb denotes passion or suffering, or the receiving of an impression; and necessarily supposes an object upon which the impression is made, and an agent by whom it is made; as, I am loved; Caroline is loved by me. A Neuter verb denotes being, or a state or condition of being, when the agent and the object acted upon coincide, and the event is properly neither action nor passion, but rather something between both; as, I am, I sit, I stand. An Active verb is sometimes called transitive, because the action passes over, as it were, to the object, or has an effect upon some other thing; as, I love Maria. In a Neuter verb the action does not pass over to the object, but is wholly confined to the agent; as, I walk, I run: it is therefore called intransitive. The Auxiliary or Helping Verb TO HAVE. Indicative Mood Present Time or Tense Singular Plural 1st pers. I have We have 2nd pers. Thou hast Ye have 3rd pers. He, she, or it has or hath They have
Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I had We had 2. Thou hadst or hast had Ye had 3. He has had They had
Perfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I have had We have had 2. Thou hast had Ye have had 3. He has had They have had
More than Past Singular Plural 1. I had had We had had 2. Thou hadst had Ye had had 3. He had had They had had
First Future, or Future Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I shall or will have We shall or will have 2. Thou shalt or wilt have Ye shall or will have 3. He shall or will have They shall or will have
Second Future, or Future Perfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I shall or will have had We shall or will have had 2. Thou shalt or wilt have had Ye shall or will have had 3. He shall or will have had They shall or will have had
Potential Mood Present Singular Plural 1. I may or can have We may or can have 2. Thou mayst or canst have Ye may or can have 3. He may or can have They may or can have
Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I might, could, would, or should have We might, could, would, or should have 2. Thou mightst, &c. have Ye might, &c., have 3. He might, &c., have They might, &c., have
Perfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I may or can have had We may or can have had 2. Thou mayst or canst have had Ye may or can have had 3. He may or can have had They may or can have had
More than Past Singular Plural 1. I might, &c., have had We might, &c., have had 2. Thou mightst, &c., have had Ye might, &c., have had 3. He might, &c., have had They might, &c., have had
Subjunctive Mood Present Singular Plural 1. If I have If we have 2. If thou have If ye have 3. If he have If they have
Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. If I had If we had 2. If thou had If ye had 3. If he had If they had
Perfectly Past Singular Plural 1. If I have had If we have had 2. If thou have had If ye have had 3. If he have had If they have had
More than Past Singular Plural 1. If I had had If we had had 2. If thou had had If ye had had 3. If he had had If they had had
First Future, or Future Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. If I shall or will have If we shall or will have 2. If thou shalt or wilt have If ye shall or will have 3. If he shall or will have If they shall or will have
Second Future, or Future Perfectly Past Singular Plural 1. If I shall or will have had If we shall or will have had 2. If thou shalt or wilt have had If ye shall or will have had 3. If he shall or will have had If they shall or will have had
Imperative Mood Singular Plural 1. Let me have Let us have 2. Have thou, or do thou have Have ye, or do ye have 3. Let him have Let them have
Infinitive Mood Present Past To have To have had
Participles Present Past Compound Past Having Had Having had
The Auxiliary Verb TO BE. Indicative Mood Present Singular Plural 1. I am We are 2. Thou art Ye are 3. He, she, or it is They are
Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I was We were 2. Thou wast Ye were 3. He was They were
Perfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I have been We have been 2. Thou hast been Ye have been 3. He has been They have been
More than Past Singular Plural 1. I had been We had been 2. Thou hadst been Ye had been 3. He had been They had been
First Future, or Future Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I shall or will be We shall or will be 2. Thou shalt or wilt be Ye shall or will be 3. He shall or will be They shall or will be
Second Future, or Future Perfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I shall or will have been We shall or will have been 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been Ye shall or will have been 3. He shall or will have been They shall or will have been
Potential Mood Present Singular Plural 1. I may or can be We may or can be 2. Thou mayst or canst be Ye may or can be 3. He may or can be They may or can be
Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I might, could, would, or should be We might, could, would, or should be 2. Thou mightst, &c. be Ye might, &c., be 3. He might, &c., be They might, &c., be
Perfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I may or can have been We may or can have been 2. Thou mayst or canst have been Ye may or can have been 3. He may or can have been They may or can have been
More than Past Singular Plural 1. I might, could, would, or should have been We might, &c., have been 2. Thou mightst, &c., have been Ye might, &c., have been 3. He might, &c., have been They might, &c., have been
Imperative Mood Singular Plural 1. Let me be Let us be 2. Be thou or do thou be Be ye or do ye be 3. Let him be Let them be
Subjunctive Mood Present Singular Plural 1. If I be If we be 2. If thou be If ye be 3. If he be If they be
Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. If I were If we were 2. If thou were If ye were 3. If he were If they were
Perfectly Past Singular Plural 1. If I have been If we have been 2. If thou hast been If ye have been 3. If he have been If they have been
More than Past Singular Plural 1. If I had been If we had been 2. If thou hadst been If ye had been 3. If he had been If they had been
First Future, or Future Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. If I shall or will be If we shall or will be 2. If thou shalt or wilt be If ye shall or will be 3. If he shall or will be If they shall or will be
Second Future, or Future Perfectly Past Singular Plural 1. If I shall or will have been If we shall or will have been 2. If thou shalt or wilt have been If ye shall or will have been 3. If he shall or will have been If they shall or will have been
Infinitive Mood Present Past To be To have been
Participles Present Past Compound Past Being Been Having been
INFLECTION OF THE OTHER AUXILIARY VERBS IN THEIR SIMPLE FORMS. It will be easily perceived that the preceding auxiliary verbs, to have and to be, could not be inflected or conjugated through all the moods and tenses, without the assistance of other auxiliaries, or helping verbs. That auxiliary verbs, in their simple form, and unassisted by others, are of very limited extent, and principally useful from the aid which they afford in inflecting other verbs, will clearly appear to every discerning person by a distinct inflection of each of them, uncombined with any other, thus: TO DO. Indicative Mood. Present Tense. Singular Plural 1. I do We do 2. Thou dost or doest Ye do 3. He doth or does They do
Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I did We did 2. Thou didst Ye did 3. He did They did
WILL. Indicative Mood. Present Time. Singular Plural 1. I will We will 2. Thou wilt Ye will 3. He will They will
Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I would We would 2. Thou wouldst Ye would 3. He would They would
SHALL. Indicative Mood. Present Time. Singular Plural 1. I shall We shall 2. Thou shalt Ye shall 3. He shall They shall
Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I should We should 2. Thou shouldst Ye should 3. He should They should
MUST. Indicative Mood. Present Time. Singular Plural 1. I must We must 2. Thou must Ye must 3. He must They must
OUGHT. Indicative Mood. Present Time. Singular Plural 1. I ought We ought 2. Thou oughtest Ye ought 3. He ought They ought
MAY. Indicative Mood. Present Time. Singular Plural 1. I may We may 2. Thou mayst Ye may 3. He may They may
Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I might We might 2. Thou mightst Ye might 3. He might They might
CAN. Indicative Mood. Present Time. Singular Plural 1. I can We can 2. Thou canst Ye can 3. He can They can
Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I could We could 2. Thou couldst Ye could 3. He could They could
The foregoing verbs, have, be, will, and do, when unconnected with a principal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries, but principal verbs; and in this view they have also their auxiliaries; as, I shall have sufficient; I will be grateful. Do and did mark the action itself, or the time of it, with greater energy; as, I do speak the truth. I did respect him. They are also of use in interrogative and negative sentences; as, Did you write? You did not write. Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates resolution and promising; in the second and third persons it only foretels. Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretels; but in the second and third persons it promises, commands, or threatens; as, I shall go; We shall sup at nine; Thou shalt go; Ye shall do justly; They shall pay for the mischief they did; He shall smart for his misconduct. These observations relate to explicative sentences; but when the sentence is interrogative, the reverse, for the most part, takes place: thus, I shall go; Ye will go; express event only: but Will ye go? imports intention: and Shall I go? refers to the will of another. He shall go, and Shall he go? both imply will, expressing or referring to a command. Must is sometimes adopted as an auxiliary, and denotes necessity; as, We must speak the truth, and must not prevaricate. Neither must nor ought admits of any variation. Ought seems to imply a kind of duty; as, We ought to tell the truth, and ought not to prevaricate. May and might express the possibility or liberty of doing a thing; but can and could express the power or capacity of doing it. THE CONJUGATION OF REGULAR VERBS. A Regular Active Verb is conjugated as follows: TO LOVE. Indicative Mood. Present. Singular Plural 1. I love or do love We love 2. Thou lovest or dost love Ye love 3. He, she, or it loveth or does love They love
Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I loved or did love We loved 2. Thou lovedst or did love Ye loved 3. He, she, or it loved or did love They loved
Perfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I have loved We have loved 2. Thou hast loved Ye have loved 3. He hath or has loved They have loved
More than Past. Singular Plural 1. I had loved We had loved 2. Thou hadst loved Ye had loved 3. He had loved They had loved
First Future, or Future Imperfectly Past. Singular Plural 1. I shall or will love We shall or will love 2. Thou shalt or wilt love Ye shall or will love 3. He shall or will love They shall or will love
Second Future, or Future Perfectly Past. Singular Plural 1. I shall or will have loved We shall or will have loved 2. Thou shalt or wilt have loved Ye shall or will have loved 3. He shall or will have loved They shall or will have loved
Potential Mood. Present Time. Singular Plural 1. I may or can love We may or can love 2. Thou mayst or canst love Ye may or can love 3. He may or can love They may or can love
Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I might, could, would, or should love We might, &c., love 2. Thou mightst, &c., love Ye might, &c., love 3. He might, &c., love They might, &c., love
Perfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I may or can have loved We may, &c., have loved 2. Thou mayst, &c., have loved Ye may, &c., have loved 3. He may, &c., have loved They may, &c., have loved
More than Past Singular Plural 1. I might, could, would, or should have loved We might, &c., have loved 2. Thou mightst, &c., have loved Ye might, &c., have loved 3. He might, &c., have loved They might, &c., have loved
Subjunctive Mood Present Time Singular Plural 1. If I love If we love 2. If thou love If ye love 3. If he love If they love
Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. If I loved If we loved 2. If thou loved If ye loved 3. If he loved If they loved
Perfectly Past Singular Plural 1. If I have loved If we have loved 2. If thou have loved If ye have loved 3. If he have loved If they have loved
More than Past Singular Plural 1. If I had loved If we had loved 2. If thou hadst loved If ye had loved 3. If he had loved If they had loved
First Future, or Future Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. If I shall or will love If we shall or will love 2. If thou shalt or wilt love If ye shall or will love 3. If he shall or will love If they shall or will love
Second Future, or Future Perfectly Past Singular Plural 1. If I shall or will have loved If we shall or will have loved 2. If thou shalt or wilt have loved If ye shall or will have loved 3. If he shall or will have loved If they shall or will have loved
Imperative Mood Singular Plural 1. Let me love Let us love 2. Love thou or do thou love Love ye or do ye love 3. Let him love Let them love
Infinitive Mood Present Past To love To have loved
Participial Forms Present Past Compound Past Loving Loved Having loved
Observations. An active verb may, however, be otherwise conjugated or inflected, by adding its present or active particle to the auxiliary verb to be; through all its moods and tenses or times, according to the following plan, in which we shall lay before the student the singular and plural of each of the times of the indicative mood, as a pattern for the rest. Thus: Indicative Mood. Present. Singular Plural 1. I am loving We are loving 2. Thou art loving Ye are loving 3. He or she is loving They are loving
Imperfectly Past. Singular Plural 1. I was loving We were loving 2. Thou wast loving Ye were loving 3. He was loving They were loving
Perfectly Past. Singular Plural 1. I have been loving We have been loving 2. Thou hast been loving Ye have been loving 3. He has been loving They have been loving
More than Past. Singular Plural 1. I had been loving We had been loving 2. Thou hadst been loving Ye had been loving 3. He had been loving They had been loving
First Future, or Future Imperfectly Past. Singular Plural 1. I shall or will be loving We shall or will be loving 2. Thou shalt or wilt be loving Ye shall or will be loving 3. He shall or will be loving They shall or will be loving
Second Future, or Future Perfectly Past. Singular Plural 1. I shall or will have been loving We shall or will have been loving 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been loving Ye shall or will have been loving 3. He shall or will have been loving They shall or will have been loving
And after the same manner throughout the other moods and tenses or times. This method of conjugation has, on particular occasions, a peculiar propriety, and greatly contributes to the harmony and precision of the language. The Regular Passive Verb is thus inflected: TO BE LOVED. Indicative Mood Present Singular Plural 1. I am loved We are loved 2. Thou art loved Ye are loved 3. He is loved They are loved
Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I was loved We were loved 2. Thou wast loved Ye were loved 3. He was loved They were loved
Perfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I have been loved We have been loved 2. Thou hast been loved Ye have been loved 3. He has been loved They have been loved
More than Past Singular Plural 1. I had been loved We had been loved 2. Thou hadst been loved Ye had been loved 3. He had been loved They had been loved
First Future, or Future Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I shall or will be loved We shall or will be loved 2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved Ye shall or will be loved 3. He shall or will be loved They shall or will be loved
Second Future, or Future Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I shall or will have been loved We shall or will have been loved 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been loved Ye shall or will have been loved 3. He shall or will have been loved They shall or will have been loved
Potential Mood Present Singular Plural 1. I may or can be loved We may or can be loved 2. Thou mayst or canst be loved Ye may or can be loved 3. He may or can be loved They may or can be loved
Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I might, could, would, or should be loved We might, &c. be loved 2. Thou mightst, &c. be loved Ye might, &c. be loved 3. He might, &c. be loved They might, &c. be loved
Perfectly Past Singular Plural 1. I may or can have been loved We may or can have been loved 2. Thou mayst or canst have been loved Ye may or can have been loved 3. He may or can have been loved They may or can have been loved
More than Past Singular Plural 1. I might, could, would, or should have been loved We might, &c. have been loved 2. Thou mightst, &c. have been loved Ye might, &c. have been loved 3. He might, &c. have been loved They might, &c. have been loved
Subjunctive Mood Present Singular Plural 1. If I be loved If we be loved 2. If thou be loved If ye be loved 3. If he be loved If they be loved
Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. If I were loved If we were loved 2. If thou wert loved If ye were loved 3. If he were loved If they were loved
Perfectly Past Singular Plural 1. If I have been loved If we have been loved 2. If thou have been loved If ye have been loved 3. If he has been loved If they have been loved
More than Past Singular Plural 1. If I had been loved If we had been loved 2. If thou had been loved If ye had been loved 3. If he had been loved If they had been loved
First Future, or Future Imperfectly Past Singular Plural 1. If I shall or will be loved If we shall or will be loved 2. If thou shalt or wilt be loved If ye shall or will be loved 3. If he shall or will be loved If they shall or will be loved
Second Future, or Future Perfectly Past Singular Plural 1. If I shall or will have been loved If we shall or will have been loved 2. If thou shalt or wilt have been loved If ye shall or will have been loved 3. If he shall or will have been loved If they shall or will have been loved
Imperative Mood Singular Plural 1. Let me be loved Let us be loved 2. Be thou loved, or do thou be loved Be ye loved, or do ye be loved 3. Let him be loved Let them be loved
Infinitive Mood Present Past To be loved To have been loved
Participial Forms Present Past Compound Past Being loved Loved Having been loved
Observations. As the active form of a regular verb could be conjugated in a different manner from the method usually adopted, so can the passive form, agreeably to the following simple plan; that is to say, if the auxiliary to be be joined to the participle present of the principal verb in the passive form, the auxiliary will go through all the variations of mood, tense, person, and number, and the participle itself will continue invariably the same; as, Indicative Mood. Present. Singular Plural 1. I am being loved We are being loved 2. Thou art being loved Ye are being loved 3. He is being loved They are being loved
Imperfectly Past. Singular Plural 1. I was being loved We were being loved 2. Thou wast being loved Ye were being loved 3. He was being loved They were being loved
Neuter verbs are conjugated like active verbs; but since they partake in some measure of the passive nature, they admit, in many instances, of the passive form. All regular verbs are inflected or conjugated like the verb to love; but in the English tongue, as in every other language, there are many irregularities, which occasion a different mode of conjugation. OF IRREGULAR VERBS. Irregular verbs are such as do not form their imperfectly past time, and the participle past, by the addition of ed to the verb, but in some other manner. There are various kinds of irregular verbs; thus, 1. Such as have the present and imperfectly past times, and the participle past, of a similar form; as, Present Imperfectly Past Perfectly Past Cost cost cost Cast cast cast Put put put
2. Such as have the imperfectly past time and the participle past alike; as, Present Imperfectly Past Perfectly Past Abide abode abode Cling clung clung Sell sold sold
3. Such as have the present, imperfectly past, and the participle past of a different form; as, Present Imperfectly Past Perfectly Past Arise arose arisen Blow blew blown Grow grew grown
Many verbs become irregular by contraction; as, feed, fed; leave, left; bereave, bereft: others by the termination en; as fall, fell, fallen; chide, chid, chidden: and others by the termination ght; as, buy, bought; beseech, besought. The following table contains nearly a complete collection of all the irregular verbs in the English language; some of which are inflected regularly as well as irregularly, and where that is the case an R is subjoined. Present Imperfectly Past Participle Past Abide abode abode Am was been Arise arose arisen Awake awoke, R awoke, awaked, R Bear (to bring forth) bare born Bear (to carry) bore borne Beat beat beat or beaten Begin began begun Bend bent, R bent, R Bereave bereft, R bereft, R Beseech besought, R besought, R, Bid bade, bad, bid bidden, bid Bind bound bound Bite bit bitten, bit Bleed bled bled Blow blew blown Break broke broken Breed bred bred Bring brought brought Build built, R built, R Burst burst burst Buy bought bought Can could - Cast cast cast Catch caught, R caught, R Chide chid chidden, chid Choose chose chosen Cleave (to adhere) clave, R cleaved Cleave (to split) clove or cleft cleft, cloven Cling clung clung Clothe clothed clad Come came come Cost cost cost Crow crew crowed Creep crept, R crept, R Cut cut cut Dare (to venture) durst dared Deal dealt, R dealt, R Die died dead Dig dug, R dug, R Do did done Draw drew drawn Drink drank drunk, drunken Drive drove driven Dwell dwelt, R dwelt, R Eat eat, ate eaten Engrave engraved engraven Fall fell fallen Feed fed fed Feel felt felt Fight fought fought Find found found Flee fled fled Fling flung flung Fly flew flown forsake forsook forsaken Freeze froze frozen Get got got, gotten Gild gilt, R gilt, R Gird girt, R girt, R Give gave given Go went gone Grave graved graven Grind ground ground Grow grew grown Hang hung, R hung, hanged Have had - Hear heard heard Hew hewed hewn, R Hide hid hidden, hid Hit hit hit Hold held holden, held Hurt hurt hurt Keep kept kept Knit knit knit, knitted Know knew known Lade laded laden Lay laid laid, lain Lead led led Leave left left Lend lent lent Let let let Lie (to lie down) lay lain Load loaded laden, R Lose lost lost Make made made May might - Meet met met Mow mowed mown Must - - Ought ought - Pay paid paid Put put put Read read read Rend rent rent Ride rode rode ridden Ring rang, rung rung Rise rose risen Rive rived riven Run ran run Saw sawed sawn, R See saw seen Say said said Seek sought sought Seethe seethed sodden Sell sold sold Send sent sent Set set set Shake shook shaken Shall should - Shape shaped shapen, R Shave shaved shaven, R Shear sheared shorn Shed shed shed Shine shone, R shone, R Show showed, R shown, R Shoe shod shod Shoot shot shot Shrink shrunk shrunk Shred shred shred Shut shut shut Sing sang, sung sung Sink sank, sunk sunk Sit sat sat, sitten Slay slew slain Sleep slept slept Slide slid, R slidden Sling slang, slung slung Slink slunk slunk Slit slit, R slit Smite smote smitten Snow snowed snown, R Sow sowed sown, R Speak spake, spoke spoken Speed sped sped Spend spent spent Spill spilt, R spilt, R Spin spun spun Spit spat spitten Split split split Spread spread spread Spring sprang, sprung sprung Stand stood stood Steal stole stolen Stick stuck stuck Sting stung stung Stink stunk stunk Stride strode stridden Strike struck struck, stricken String strung strung Strive strove striven Strow strew strowed, strewed strown, strewed Swore sware, sworn sworn Sweat sweat sweat Swell swelled swollen Swim swam, swum swum Swing swung swung Take took taken Teach taught taught Tear tare, tore torn Tell told told Think thought thought Thrive throve, R thriven Throw threw thrown Thrust thrust thrust Tread trod, trode trodden Trow - - Wear wore worn Weave wove, R woven, R Weep wept wept Wet wet wet Will would - Win won won Wind wound wound Wist wist - Wit wot wot - Work wrought, R wrought, worked Wring wrung, R wrung, wringed Write wrote written
The whole number of verbs in the English language, regular and irregular, according to the calculation which has been made by some eminent grammarians, is about four thousand three hundred; but as we are daily borrowing new verbs, as well as other parts of speech, particularly substantives and terms of art, from foreign languages, it seems rather difficult, if it be not altogether impossible, to fix their exact number. About one hundred and eighty of these verbs may be looked upon as irregular. OF ADVERBS. Adverbs from other parts of speech are known, Because before them they do all disown By, with, in, from, through, for, to, of, and all Those pronouns which we personal do call. This first, with verb, and likewise with its noun, Makes perfect sense; as, Edward's early crown: And by its answering to the question, How, And in what manner, do they guide the plough? These words the manner, time, and place imply, Affirm, ask, doubt, compare, and e’en deny, As by the note below you may descry. Like adjectives some adverbs take a rise, Or fall as much in number or in size. Adverbs are little particles which serve to express the manners or qualities of words, or some circumstance of an action; as, justly, now, soon. They are added to nouns, adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs. Adverbs are easily distinguished from other parts of speech, because they cannot admit before them a preposition; as, by, with, for, through, from, of, to; nor a personal pronoun; as, I, thou, he, we, ye, they. An adverb will make sense if joined with a verb; as, That boy reads distinctly. A wise man lives happily. It makes sense when placed before a noun with its adjective; as, He is a truly judicious person. And also when placed before another adverb; as, He reads very correctly. An adverb may be generally known by its answering to the questions, How? How much? When? Where? Thus, in the phrase, A wise man lives happily; the answer to the question, How does the wise man live? is, happily. Again; He reads very correctly; the answer to the question, How does he read? is, very correctly. Adverbs in the English language being very numerous, they may be classed in the following manner, viz.: I. Adverbs of Place: these are fourfold, namely, those which signify motion or rest, 1st. In a place; as, Where? Here, there, within, without, everywhere, nowhere, somewhere, elsewhere, anywhere, in the same place.2ndly. To a place; as, Whither? Hither, thither, to within, to without, to that place, to another place.3rdly. Towards a place; as, Whitherward? Towards, nitherward, thitherward, upward, downward, forward, backward.4thly. From a place; as, Whence? Hence, thence, whithersoever, from above, from below. II. Adverbs of Time: these are fourfold, viz.: 1st. Time present; as, now, to-day, &c. 2nd. Time past; as, then, yesterday, heretofore, before, lately, hitherto, &c. 3rd. Future time; as, (near) presently, immediately, instantly, by and by, straightways; (more remote) to-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforward. 4th. Indefinite time; as, oft, often, oft-times, sometimes, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, ever, never, in the mean time, &c. III. Of Quantity; as, much, little, enough, somewhat, something, how much, how great, abundantly, &c. IV. Of Number; as, once, twice, thrice, &c. V. Of Order; as, first, secondly, thirdly, &c., lastly, finally. VI. Of Quality; as, wisely, foolishly, quickly, slowly, justly, unjustly, &c. This class of adverbs is very numerous, and is generally formed by adding ly to, or by changing le into ly, in adjectives; as, bad, badly; good, goodly; able, ably; prudent, prudently. VII. Of Affirming; as, verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really, &c. VIII. Of Asking; as, how? why? wherefore? whether? IX. Of Doubt; as, perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance. X. Of Denying; as, nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, &c. XI. Of Comparing; as, more, most; less, little; less, least; very, almost, alike, &c. Observations. Many of the adverbs seem to have been originally invented for the purpose of expressing in one word, what must otherwise have required two or more; as, he acted wisely, for he acted with wisdom; prudently, for with prudence; he came here, for he came to this place; the weather is exceedingly sultry, for the weather is sultry to a very great degree; often, for many times; seldom, for few times, &c. There are likewise many words in English that are sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as adverbs; as, more boys than girls were there; or, I am more industrious than he. In the former sentence more is evidently an adjective, but in the latter it is doubtless an adverb. There are others also which are sometimes used as nouns substantive, and sometimes as adverbs; as, the lesson of to-day is longer than that of yesterday: here to-day and yesterday are both nouns, because they are words which make sense by themselves, and admit the preposition of before them; or, it maybe expressed thus, To-day's lesson is longer than yesterday's, where those words are put in the possessive case of the noun. But in the phrase, He came to town yesterday, and will return again to-day, the words are undoubtedly adverbs of time, because they answer to the question When? as, When did he come to town? Yesterday. When will he return? To-day. Much may be used as a substantive, as an adjective, and as an adverb; thus: Where much is given, much will be required. Much money has been laid out. It is much better to go than to stay. In the first of these sentences much is a noun substantive; in the second, an adjective; and in the third, an adverb. In truth, nothing but their signification can properly determine what they are. Lastly, adverbs are frequently compared like adjectives; as, Positive Comparative Superlative Often oftener oftenest Soon sooner soonest Prudently more prudently most prudently Wisely more wisely most wisely, &c.
Force to expression prepositions grant, And give to nouns the energy they want; 'Fore substantives, in general, they appear, Though now and then they occupy the rear; As, We were over hills and vallies sent: Over points out the manner how they went. These little words of others show the state; - And how they to each other do relate, In the accompanying note you’ll find, And how their use and meaning are assigned. Prepositions may be known by their admitting after them pronouns in the objective case; as, with, for, to, &c., thus: with him, for her, to them, &c. Prepositions serve to connect words with one another, and to show the relation that subsists between them. They are, for the most part, set before substantives, pronouns, and verbs; as, before substantives: She is above disguise. He went from St. Paul's to Westminster Abbey. Before pronouns: He spoke to me. He walked with them. Before verbs: He promised to write for me. I was obliged to ride./> Prepositions are separable or inseparable. Separable prepositions may be used separately from other words; as, above, about, over, under, at, after, with, &c., but some of these are sometimes joined with other words; as, overtake, undertake, afterward, withstand, &c. Those which are inseparable are always used in the composition of other words; as, a, be, fore, mis, un, &c., thus: aflout, betimes, forerun, misbehave, undue, &c. Prepositions, when prefixed to other words, generally impart something of their own meaning to the word with which they are compounded; as, undervalue, undergo, underlay, overvalue, overgo, overlay. Some, by being placed after verbs, change their meaning; as, to cast, is to throw; but to cast up, is to compute; to give is to bestow; but to give over, is to abandon, or cease. These prepositions are sometimes used figuratively; as, He is above disguise. We serve under a good master. He rules over a willing people. The importance of English prepositions will be fully conceived by the following explanation of a few of those which are most generally in use. Thus, Of denotes possession or belonging to, an effect or consequence, and other relations connected with these; as, The house of my father; that is, the house belonging to my father. He died of a fever; that is, he died in consequence of a fever. To or unto is opposed to from; as, He rode from London to York. For indicates the cause or motive of an action or circumstance, &c.; as, He loves her for (on account of) her amiable qualities. By is frequently used with reference to the cause, agent, means, &c.; as, He was killed by a fall; that is, a fall was the cause of his being killed. In relates to time, place, the state or manner of being, acting, &c.; as, He was born in (during the year) 1800. He dwells in the city. Into is used after verbs that imply motion; as, He retired into the country. With denotes the act of accompanying, uniting, &c.; as, We will go with you. They are on good terms with each other. It also alludes to the instrument or means; as, He was cut with a knife. With also signifies against; as, to withstand, i. e. to stand against, &c. The principal prepositions in English are as follow: of to from for by in into at with within without up down on or upon off over through agoabo below beneath under before after until behind beyond about near against among between beside OF CONJUNCTIONS. By conjunctive particles is fully shown How sentences' dependance may be known, And two be thus completely joined in one. Beside this use, we likewise often find That parts of sentences by them are joined. These words in different sorts divided are, As cop'lative, disjunctive do declare; Beside all those which seem t’imply a cause, Condition, or concession, with the laws Of those which inference likewise do imply, As all our youth may easily descry. * The word conjunction is derived from the Latin, con, with, and jungo, to join; that is, to join together, or connect sentences, or the different parts of sentences, and point out the manner of their dependance upon each other. Conjunctions are generally divided into several sorts, viz.: 1. Copulative, or Connective, which serve to connect or continue a sentence, or part of a sentence, by expressing an addition; as, Joseph and William reside in London. John and Mary, likewise Peter, as well as Francis, will go into the country. The copulatives are, and, also, likewise, both, as well as, &c. 2. A Conjunction Disjunctive serves to connect and continue a sentence, and to express opposition of meaning; as, Both John and James came with Mary, but, as neither of them would stay, they went without her, otherwise they would have lost their passage; nevertheless they returned in the evening. The disjunctive words are, or, nor, either, neither, but, except, than, yet, nevertheless, unless, otherwise, save, saving, whether, whether or not, &c. 3. Causals are such as imply a cause; as, Alexander conquered, for he was valiant. He was encouraged, because he was punctual. Causals are, for, because, seeing, forasmuch, as, so, since, &c. 4. Conditionals imply a supposition; as, Ye will be esteemed, if ye be good boys, as these are. Conditionals are, if, as, that, if so be, &c. 5. Concessives assign a reason; as, John will come although he be sick, and notwithstanding he appears to be rather worse. Concessives are, though, although, notwithstanding, &c. 6. Inferential Conjunctions are such as imply an inference; as, He is a good boy, therefore he shall be rewarded. These are, therefore, wherefore, then, &c. Some words of these classes are adverbs as well as conjunc tives; but the sense will determine to which they belong. The following is a list of the principal conjunctions: also although and as as well as because both but either except for forasmuch as if if so be lest likewise neither nevertheless nor notwithstanding or otherwise save saving seeing since so than that then therefore though unless whereas wherefore whether We may here remark, that conjunctions and prepositions are words essential to discourse, and more so than the greater part of adverbs. They form a class of words, without which there could be no language, and serve to express the relations which things bear to one another, their mutual influence, dependencies, and coherence; thereby joining words together into intelligible and significant propositions. OF INTERJECTIONS. These words, though few in number, have their use, Yet are they subject, sometimes, to abuse They are, however, little particles, Imperfect in their very form; or else They mark some passion of the mind, and cause A feeling in the hearer by some laws Which men have made; and in the notes you'll see On what occasions they cancau used be. The word interjection is derived from the Latin inter, between, and jacio, to put or place; and words of this part of speech are so called, because they are put or placed between sentences or the parts of a sentence, without making any other alteration therein. Interjections, then, are certain little words (by some called little imperfect words) which are thrown in between the parts of a sentence, that express some sudden emotion or passion of the mind, as, Alas! I have caused a friend to become an enemy. There are as many kinds of interjection as there are different emotions or passions of the mind, so that it is not easy to reduce them to any fixed number. As these words are of various sorts, according to the different passions they are meant to express, so are they differently divided by our grammarians. The following distribution of them will answer every useful purpose. Of Admiration; as, Lo! behold! strange! Of Aversion or Contempt; away! begone! fy! avaunt! pish! pshaw! tush! foh! Of Shouting; Huzza! Of Mirth or Joy; Hey! heyday! Of Grief or Sorrow; Alas! O! oh! ah! alack-a-day! woe's me! Of Wonder; Heigh! really! strange! ah! Of Silence; Hist! hush! mum! Of Languor; Heigh-ho! Of Salutation; Welcome! hail! all hail! Of Calling; Holla! ho! soho! hoa! hem! hee! hip! Of Praise; Well done! Of Laughter; Ha, ha, ha! Some adverbs are used in this manner; as, gently! softly! And some substantive nouns; as, O shame! with a mischief! O the villany! THE DERIVATION OF WORDS. This part of Etymology must be Before the student laid, that he may see How one word from another has its source, And different parts of speech are framed in course. These words in various ways derived we find; From English some, and some from foreign kind. And that the learner may have clearer light, We in the notes shall set the matter right: Though some a different thought may entertain, Our plan they will assent to in the main. Nouns or substantives are derived from verbs by converting the present time or tense of the verb into a substantive; as, love, drink, a fight, a fright; from the verb to love, to drink, to fight, to fright. Sometimes substantives are derived from the past time of the verb; as, a stroke, from struck, the past time of the verb to strike. The participle present is converted into a substantive expressing the action; as, loving, drinking, fighting, frighting. Substantives are sometimes formed by adding er to the verb; these show the agent, or person acting; as, lover, drinker, fighter, frighter, striker. Substantives, adjectives, and sometimes other parts of speech, are changed into verbs, sometimes with, and at other times without, any alteration in their form; as, to sail, to salt, to taste, from the substantives, a sail, salt, taste. In this case the vowel is often lengthened, or the consonant softened; as, a house, to house; brass, to braze; price, to prize; breath, to breathe; further, to further; forward, to forward; hinder, to hinder. Sometimes the termination en is added; as, haste, to hasten; length, to lengthen; short, to shorten; hard, to harden; soft, to soften. Adjectives of plenty are formed from substantives by adding y; as, wealth, wealthy; health, healthy; wind, windy: but if the substantive end in e, the e is changed into y; as, bone, bony; stone, stony; grease, greasy. Adjectives of plenty are likewise formed from substantives, by adding ful, which denotes abundance; as, joy, joyful; fruit, fruitful; plenty, plentiful. Adjectives of likeness are formed from substantives by adding ly; as, earth, earthly; heaven, heavenly; man, manly. And some adjectives are formed from other adjectives in the same manner; as, good, goodly; weak, weakly; base, basely. Adverbs of quality are formed from adjectives by adding ly; as, bold, boldly; swift, swiftly; slow, slowly. Adjectives that signify the matter out of which any thing is made, are derived from substantives by adding en; as, oak, oaken; birch, birchen; ash, ashen. Some adjectives of plenty or abundance are formed from substantives, by adding some; but in this case the degree is less than it is in those which end in y or ful; as, delight, delightsome; burden, burdensome; irk, irksome; trouble, troublesome. Adjectives which import privation or want, are formed from substantives by adding less; as, father, fatherless; mother, motherless; child, childless; blame, blameless. Privation or contrariety is very frequently denoted by prefixing the particle un to many adjectives; as, unpleasant, unwise, unworthy, unhealthy, unfruitful, unuseful. We may here observe, that the original English particle of privation is un, which has descended to us from the Saxon language; but as we frequently borrow from the Latin, or its descendants, words already signifying privation, as, inefficacious, indiscreet, indecorous, inactivity, inadequate, the inseparable particles un and in have fallen into confusion, from which it is not easy to disentangle them. Un is prefixed to all words originally English; as, untrue, untruth, untaught, unhandsome. Un is prefixed to all participles made privative adjectives; as, unfeeling, unassisting, unaided, undelighted, unendeared. Un should by no means be prefixed to a participle present to mark a forbearance of action; as, unsighing; but a privation of habit; as, unpitying. Un is prefixed to most substantives which have an English termination; as, unfertileness, unperfectness; but if such words have borrowed terminations, in or im is used in preference to un; as, infertility, imperfection, uncivil, incivility, inactive, inactivity. In borrowing adjectives, if we receive them already compounded, it is customary to retain the particle prefixed; as, indecent, inelegant, improper; but if we borrow the adjective, and add the privative particle, we commonly prefix un; as, unpolite, ungallant. Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, by adding ish, when a diminution or lessening of the quality is implied; as, white, whitish, that is, somewhat white; black, blackish; that is, somewhat black; round, roundish, that is, somewhat round. Some adjectives are derived from substantives, by adding ish, and these signify likeness or tendency to a character; as, child, childish; boy, boyish; girl, girlish. Some nouns belonging to nations are formed in the same manner; as, English, Scottish, Irish, Spanish, Danish, Swedish, Turkish, &c. Some adjectives, which signify capacity, are formed from substantives or verbs, by adding the termination able; as, from substantives, answer, answerable; remark, remarkable; bail, bailable: from verbs, to move, moveable; to improve, improveable; to allow, allowable. Some abstract substantives, noting character or quality, are derived from concrete adjectives, by adding the termination ness; as, white, whiteness; black, blackness; foolish, foolishness; swift, swiftness; slow, slowness; hard, hardness; soft, softness; good, goodness; skilful, skilfulness; unskilful, unskilfulness. And some abstract substantives, terminating in hood or head, and likewise noting character or quality, are derived from concrete adjectives, or other substantives; as, likely, likelihood; false, falsehood, brother, brotherhood; sister, sisterhood; man, manhood; widow, widowhood; priest, priesthood; knight, knighthood: God, Godhead; maiden, maidenhead. Some abstract substantives are derived from adjectives in a peculiar manner, by adding the termination th, and making a little alteration in the orthography of the original adjective; as, long, length; strong, strength; broad, breadth; deep, depth; true, truth; warm, warmth; dear, dearth; heal, health; weal, wealth; moon, month; young, youth. Some substantives are derived from verbs in the same manner, by the termination th being added to them; as, to bear, birth; to die, death; to grow, growth; to steal, stealth; to till, tilth. Some substantives are derived from adjectives by adding ht, and making a little alteration in the orthography of the adjective; as, high, height; dry, drought. Some substantives are derived from verbs in the same manner, by adding ht; as, to draw, draught; to fly, flight; to weigh, weight. There are so many ways of deriving words from one another, beside those already mentioned, that it is extremely difficult and almost impossible to enumerate them. The primitive words in any language are but very few; and the derivative words form by far the greatest number: we may therefore observe, that some substantives are derived from other substantives by adding the terminations ship, ery, wick, rick, dom, ian, ment, and age. Substantives which end in ship imply an office, employment, state, or condition; as, kingship, lordship, wardship, guardianship, partnership, headship, stewardship, fellowship, chancellorship. Some substantives in ship are derived from adjectives; as, hard, hardship. Some substantives that denote action or habit, are formed from other substantives, by the addition of ry or ery; as, knavery, slavery, foolery, drollery, prudery, roguery. Some substantives of this kind are derived from adjectives, by adding a similar termination; as, brave, bravery. Substantives which signify dominion or jurisdiction, are formed by adding wick, rick, and dom, to other substantives or adjectives; as, bailiwick, sheriffwick, bishoprick, kingdom, dukedom, earldom, freedom, wisdom, sheriffdom, Christendom. Substantives which signify profession are formed by adding ian to other substantives; as, physician, logician, rhetorician, mathematician, musician, metaphysician. Many substantives are formed by the addition of ment or age to other substantives or verbs; as, commandment, disguisement, disfigurement, disfranchisement, usage, dotage, wharfage, cozenage, cooperage. Some substantives are formed from verbs or adjectives, and denote character or habit, by adding ard; as, drunk, drunkard; dote, dotard; wise, wizzard; dull, dullard. Some substantives of the derivative kind ending in ee, are of French original, and signify possession or the possessor; as, grantee, that is, one to whom a grant is made; lessee, that is, one to whom a lease is granted; mortgagee, that is, one to whom a mortgage is given; legatee, that is, one to whom a legacy is left; nominee, that is, one named to represent another. Diminutive substantives are derived from other substantives, by adding the terminations kin, ling, ock, erel, icle, let; as, lamb, lambkin; man, manikin; pipe, pipkin; goose, gosling; duck, duckling; hill, hillock; cock, cockerel; pike, pickerel; part, particle; river, rivulet. In the English language there are a great number of words which are derived from the Latin, the French, and several other languages; so many indeed, that it is almost impossible to compute their number: and the impossibility is the greater, as the French borrow from the Latin, and we both from the Latin and the French; so that it is difficult, in many cases, to say, with precision, whether the words be derived from the one or the other. The word grace, for instance, is by some lexicographers derived from the Latin word gratia; but Dr. Johnson and several others derive it from the French word grace; and it certainly comes more naturally to us from the French than it does from the Latin, though both may be said, without impropriety, to have had one common origin. The same may be observed with respect to the English word face, which has the same orthography in French, but in Latin it is facies. The principal English words that are derived from the Latin are generally those which terminate in nce or cy, in ty, in ion, in ude, id, in n, t, or r, between two vowels, in nt, in al, il, in ious, and uous. English words that end in nce or cy are derived from Latin words in tia, by changing tia into ce or cy; as, Latin English Abstinentia Abstinence Abundantia Abundance Patentia Patience Constantia Constancy Clementia Clemency
English words in ty are derived from Latin words in tas, by changing tas into ty; as, Latin English Dignitas Dignity Equitas Equity Equalitas Equality Libertas Liberty Majestas Majesty Opportunitas Opportunity
English words in ion come from Latin words in io, by adding n; as, Latin English Actio Action Additio Addition Subtractio Subtraction Multiplicatio Multiplication Divisio Division Reductio Reduction Natio Nation Relatio Relation Opinio Opinion Dominatio Domination
English words in ude come from Latin words in uda, by changing o into e; as, Latin English Fortitudo Fortitude Gratitudo Gratitude Altitudo Altitude Latitudo Latitude Longitudo Longitude Multitudo Multitude
English words in id come from the Latin in idus, by rejecting us; as, Latin English Acidus Acid Acridus Acrid Frigidus Frigid Horridus Horrid Placidus Placid Putridus Putrid Rigidus Rigid Timidus Timid Turgidus Turgid
English substantives that terminate in n or r, between two vowels, come from Latin substantives in ina or ura, by changing a into e; as, Latin English Disciplina Discipline Doctrina Doctrine Concubina Concubine Natura Nature Statura Stature Mixtura Mxiture
English adjectives that terminate in n, t, or r, between two vowels, are derived from Latin adjectives in us, by changing us into e; as, Latin English Completus Complete Marinus Marine Politus Polite Purus Pure Obscurus Obscure Terrenus Terrene
English adjectives and substantives that end in nt, are derived from Latin words in ns, by changing s into t; as, Latin English Arrogans Arrogant Decens Decent Deficiens Deficient Elegans Elegant Flagrans Flagrant Reluctans Reluctant Delinquens Delinquent Remanens Remanent
English words ending in at are derived from Latin words in alis, by throwing away is; as, Latin English Equalis Equal Frugalis Frugal Liberalis Liberal Naturalis Natural Perpetualis Perpetual Universalis Universal
English words that end in il come from Latin words in ilis, by rejecting is; as, Latin English Civilis Civil Aprilis April
English words in ious are derived from Latin words in osus, by omitting the first s; as, Latin English Curiosus Curious Generosus Generous Laboriosus Laborious Studiosus Studious Invidiosus Invidious Nebulosus Nebulous
English words in ous are likewise derived from Latin words in us, by inserting o before us; as, Latin English Nefarius Nefarious Longimanus Longimanous Ligneus Ligneous Lusorius Lusorious Lutarius Lutarious Momentaneus Momentaneous
English words in uous are formed from Latin words in uus, by inserting o between the two u's; as, Latin English Assiduus Assiduous Contiguus Contiguous Irriguus Irriguous Multiloquus Multiloquous Perspicuus Perspicuous
Many of the above words, however, which are said to be derived from the Latin, might, perhaps, with as much propriety, be derived from the French, and with greater reason, because they come to us immediately from the French, though they came originally from the Latin; for the Norman French was brought into this country by William the Conqueror, and the pleadings in the courts of law were ordered to be carried on in that language in preference to the Saxon, so that in the end the French predominated: indeed, many of the words adopted by the English are purely French, though the French derived them from the Latin. We shall instance a few, in different parts of speech: some of them, however, have been changed a little in their orthography; thus: word class French English Substant. Condition Condition Substant. Crime Crime Substant. Exercice Exercise Substant. Fruit Fruit Substant. Projet Project Substant. Herbe Herb Substant. Poste Post Substant. Juge Judge Substant. Discours Discourse Substant. Jardin Garden Substant. Passage Passage Substant. Ministre Minister Substant. Lettre Letter Adjec. Abjecte Abject Adjec. Abominable Abominable Adjec. Abstersif Abstersive Adjec. Adorable Adorable Adjec. Aimable Amiable Adjec. Ambitieux Ambitious Adjec. Amoureuse Amorous Adjec. Aromatique Aromatic Adjec. Brave Brave Adjec. Calamiteux Calamitous Adjec. Charitable Charitable Adjec. Decent Decent Adjec. Elegant Elegant
Many hundreds more might be enumerated, but the above will be sufficient to elucidate the observation made above. Some verbs which seem borrowed from the Latin, are formed from the present tense; as, Latin English Commendo To commend Convinco To convince Approbo To approve Concipio To conceive Provideo To provide Repello To repel
And some from the supine; as, French English Accommodatum To accommodate Enumeratum To enumerate Exaggeratum To exaggerate Translatum To translate Conductum To conduct Oppressum To oppress
Some verbs are also formed from the French infinitive mood, by rejecting the termination er, and sometimes slightly altering the orthography; as, French English Avancer To advance Avancer To advance Aider To aid Crier To cry Danser To dance Plaider To plead
We might extend this subject to a much greater length, but we fear it is already carried too far. SYNTAX.Syntax is by some denominated Construction, and is the right ordering of words in a sentence, so as to make the meaning clear, distinct, and intelligible. Or, the construction of a sentence is the regular connexion of the words agreeably to nature, which is generally more regarded by the English, and some other modem languages, than by those of the ancients. Two or more words a sentence must contain, Which do some sentiment or thought explain.No sentence can subsist which is not made up of two, three, or more words, by which some sentiment or thought of the mind is expressed; nor can it be without one verb and a noun signifying the subject of that verb, that is, a noun of which something is affirmed; as, Life is short. A falsehood is abominable. William wrote a letter. A sentence is or simple or compound; Thus, in the first, one verb is always found, And of the subject too one noun expressed, Or understood, as is by all confessed. There are three sorts of simple sentences, viz.: l. The explicative, or that which explains. 2. The interrogative, or that by which questions are asked 3. The imperative, or that which commands. An explicative sentence is when a thing is said to be or not to be, to do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer, in a direct manner; as, (affirmatively,) I am; thou writest; Thomas is loved: (negatively, I am not; thou dost not write; Thomas is not loved. In an interrogative sentence, or when a question is asked, the noun or pronoun follows the principal verb or the auxiliary; as, Was it James? Was it he? Did Alexander conquer the Persians? In an imperative sentence, when a thing is commanded to be, to do, to suffer, or not, the noun follows the verb or the auxiliary; as, Go, thou deceiver! Do thou go. Haste ye away. But if the verb let be used, it is otherwise; as, Let us be gone; let us haste away. A compound sentence is of two composed, Or more, by little words connective closed.A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences, which are joined together by one or more conjunctions, or connective words; as, Life is short, and eternity is long. THE CONSTRUCTION OF ARTICLES. A or an immediately we place Before the noun; the man, an hour, a face; But if an adjective would fain come in, 'Tis mostly placed the a and noun between.When an adjective is introduced it is generally placed between the article and the noun to which it belongs; as, a great man; a little woman; a spacious building: yet sometimes the article is put between the adjective and the noun; as, Such a gift is too small a reward for so valuable a labour, and so great a benefit. THE CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS. The noun, the subject of the verb, we find Before it takes its place; 'tis so inclined:The substantive or pronoun, of which the verb affirms something, is generally placed, in construction, before the verb; as, I am happy. The parson preaches. The book is read. Except command or question be implied, Then to the noun precedence is denied. But if may, can, shall, will, ought, would, or do, Before the chiefest verb in language go, Then does the noun between them take its place, Else will the style want all its proper grace.If a question, command, permission, or concession be implied, then the noun is put after the verb, or between an auxiliary and a verb; thus, 1. When a question is asked; Does the house burn? May ye live? 2. When a command is given; Lovest thou, or Dost thou love? 3. When permission is given; You may pay money. 4. When something is conceded; I grant your desire. If of these words two do at once precede The chiefest verb, you then must take great heed The noun between them doth obtain its lot; Would George have gone? Could William have forgot? When the command the second person takes, The pronoun often no appearance makes.As love, for love thou; depart, for depart thou; awake, for awake ye; the second person of the imperative mood, singular and plural; for every verb, except in the infinitive mood, or a participle, ought to have a noun expressed or understood. When did, might, should, would, could, and had, and were, If do imply; and also after there; The verb we find will go before the noun;When the past time of do, may, can, will, shall, have, am, supplies the place of and implies if, the noun is set after the verb, and likewise there is used; as, Had he (for if he had) asked, he had obtained. Had I (for if I had) heard this, I should not have approved it. Were I a king, I would govern with moderation. There fell a thousand men. By way of emphasis the same 'twill own.The same is also done by way of emphasis; as, It was Cæsar who conquered. It was the house that fell. But this happens sometimes when there are none of these considerations; as, said I, said he, for I said, he said. A personal pronoun follows or precedes, Ev'n as the noun itself pursues or leads.The nominative case of the personal pronoun is placed after the verb; as, I read; hearest thou? We walk; ride ye? That verb in speech which doth an act extend To something else, will after it commend A noun, to which that action does relate; As, Joseph spurns her with his usual hate.* These nouns distinguished are by what? and who? And whom? and what? as the examples show.† But when the action don't at all relate T'another, but in the subject terminate, No noun the verb it then doth seem requires, To follow it, but in itself expires.When the action of the verb does not extend or relate to any other person or thing, but terminates in the subject, no noun is required after it; as, I grieve, I sit, I rejoice, I run, I stand, &c.; they are, therefore, generally termed neuter verbs. THE CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES. The adjectives in English mostly own The place immediately before their noun:As adjectives have no variation of gender or number in the English language, they do not admit of many rules in construction; and although in nature we think of the noun before the adjective, yet the adjectives are generally placed before the nouns to which they belong, or of which they express the manner; as, a good man; a good woman; a virtuous girl; an industrious boy; an elegant house; a ruinous castle. Rude behaviour and indecent language are disgraceful to youth of education. Just art thou, O God! and righteous are thy judgments. Except a verb its station takes between; As in the annex'd examples may be seen.Except a verb come between the adjective and the noun, for then the adjective is generally placed after it; as, God is gracious. God is just, and his judgments are righteous. Feed me with food convenient for me. Poetic diction, with peculiar grace, Allows the noun we see the foremost place.As "Hail, bard divine!" "Communion sweet, communion large and high." "To lordlings proud I tune my lay." "Sweet charity, long-suffering, meek, and kind." But when there are more adjectives than one That come together, or together join; Or one adjective with its governed train; The noun in common follows it is plain.When more adjectives than one come together, they are sometimes placed after the noun, and sometimes before it; as, A man both wise and valiant. A man exceedingly wise, valiant, and successful. A gentleman skilful, expert, and dextrous. Or, A wise and valiant man. An exceedingly wise, valiant, and successful man. A skilful, expert, and dextrous gentleman. A noun and all its adjectives unite, And form one word, as sev'ral learned write; But when these different words in one conspire, They then some other adjective require.A substantive with its adjectives, or any governing word with its attendants, is, by some grammarians, considered as one compounded word, but, we think, erroneously; as, a man, an old man, a wise old man, a very wise old man. THE CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS. Possessive pronouns, which from nouns do flow, Before their substantives directly go; As, my house, thy friend, his favour, her book, Our regard, their relations, and your crook. THE CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. The verb in language always must agree In number and person with the noun you’ll see. The verb must always agree in construction with its nominative case, (that is, with the noun of which it affirms something,) both in number and person, whether it be singular or plural; as, I write; thouthau art taught; the vessel sails: We sing; ye are improved. Disappointments sink the heart of man, but the renewal of hope gives consolation. In vain our flocks and fields increase our store, When our abundance makes us wish for more. Here the nominative case is known by asking the question Who? or What? as, Who writes? I. Who is taught? Thou. What sails? The ship. Who sing? We. Who are improved? Ye. What sink the heart? Disappointments. What gives consolation? The renewal of hope. What is our store increased by? Our flocks and fields. What makes us wish for more? Our abundance When of two nouns or more (each singular) We aught affirm, the verbs most justly are In the plural number made to appear.When a verb relates to, or affirms something of, two or more foregoing nouns, joined by a conjunction, though they be all of the singular number, the verb must be of the plural. Or, if two or more substantives singular, joined by a conjunction, be the nominative to the verb, the verb must be of the plural number; as, My father and mother are at home. My brother, sister, and cousin are gone to school. Idleness and ignorance give rise to many vices. What signify the counsel and care of preceptors, when youth think they have no need of assistance. Dr. Blair justly observes, that two or more substantives joined by a copulative must always require the verbs or pronouns to which they refer to be placed in the plural number. A verb we find may be placed (at our ease) In singular or plural, which we please, When to a noun of number it is joined, Though still the same we singular do find.A noun of multitude or number, the meaning of which implies more than one, although it be itself in the singular, the verb may be in the singular or plural; as, The mob was unruly; or, the mob were unruly. The army is (or are) well disciplined. The people are dissatisfied. The meeting was large. My people do not consider. When two verbs are in composition seen To come together, to is placed between,As, Cease to do evil; learn to do well. We should be prepared to render an account of our actions. I wish him not to wrestle with his happiness. Except let, bid, dare, help, and may, can, would, With shall and will, have, am, and should and could. Have, am, or be, with participle joined, Or adjective that being calls to mind, All suffering and being does express That modern English language will confess.As, I being well, needed not a physician. I am loved. THE CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. Some little words there are we adverbs call, For after verbs we always place them all: They take their station thus the learn'd admit; But before adjectives are mostly set.Adverbs are generally placed after those verbs whose manners they express; as, He writes elegantly. The parson spoke largely on the subject. He walks slowly. But they are placed before adjectives; as, He is a very good accountant. He is an exceedingly rich man. He is very honest in his dealings. Betwixt auxiliaries and verbs they’re placed, And thus the English tongue is sometimes graced.Adverbs are sometimes placed between the auxiliary and the verb; as, I was tenderly educated. I was carefully instructed. But it would be equally elegant to say, I was educated tenderly. I was instructed carefully. THE CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS. Between the words whose reference they express, The prepositions claim a certain place.All substantives, adjectives, and verbs have various states, relations, and references to each other, which are expressed, for the most part, by the prepositions of, to, for, by, with, through, &c. Such as these are of the most frequent use; as, O God! the memorial of thy love to the sons of men, from the beginning of the world to this day, is recorded with thankfulness in the hearts of all good persons. All the prepositions in this sentence point out the relation or reference of noun to noun, and their connexion, in that manner, with each other: they must, therefore, be placed between those words, the relation and dependance of which they are to express. Of has this peculiar eminence, Always to bound of words the gen’ral sense.As of signifies or points out the relation that subsists between the noun which goes before it, and that which follows it; so it has the peculiar property of limiting and determining the general signification of the word on which it depends. Two nouns may be without a word between, But of betwixt is often to be seen.When two nouns come together, of is generally placed between them; but when of signifies possession, it is frequently omitted, and the first is put in the possessive case; as, My father's house; or, the house of my father. Man's happiness; or, the happiness of man. Virtue's reward; or, the reward of virtue. Except they to the same thing do incline, For then the middle of we do decline.When two nouns come together and relate to the same thing, the word of is better omitted; as, the river Thames; the river Severn; the Atlantic Ocean. Between superlatives and following nouns, Of, by grammatic right, a station owns.All adjectives in the superlative degree may be followed by the preposition of; as, the wisest of philosophers; the best of princes; the most consummate of villains. When from the noun comes hurt or benefit, To, to direct you where 'tis aim'd, thinks fit.The preposition to or for imports the person or thing to or for whom any convenience or inconvenience is intended by the noun, adjective, or verb; as, A friend to the poor; kind to all men; yielding to the more intelligent. When you the instrument or manner how, By which, wherewith, express, allow These little words to be for ever seen, By, with, and through, and from, and also in. When we make use of language by which we would point out the instrument, or show the medium by which, wherewith, or the manner how a thing is done, we adopt the words by, with, from, through, in, and such like; as, The rays of the sun, with incredible swiftness, travel from their source, through the air, to the earth, endued with light and heat, by (with, through) which it comforts us, and causes the vegetables to grow, which God has provided for us, and given to us for our use, and for his own glory. By is made use of for the efficient (as well principal as instrumental and moral) cause, and signifies near to, &c.; as, He was slain by his enemy, by (beside, or near to) a spring of water, but he was wounded, first by his own fear, then by the sword of his antagonist. In composition we these words do place Before a pronoun in the oblique case.As, of me, to him, with her, from us, by them. THE CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. This part of speech we frequently do find Is used when one word to another’s joined; Clauses of sentences do likewise claim A similar little word to join the same; And they between those sentences take site, Which by their joining virtue they unite. As, Man and woman. Virtue and vice. Happiness and misery. Truth and falsehood. Good and bad. The lips of the righteous feed many, but fools die for want of wisdom. THE CONSTRUCTION OF INTERJECTIONS. These little particles we always find Do nought but mark some passion of the mind. In parts of sentences we see them thrown, But they have no construction of their own. They're scarcely worth consideration, But in our tongue they have a station. Sometimes, however, they add greater force, But their chief use is when we write in verse. In invocation we prefix an O! O God! our frailty thou dost surely know.Interjections are certain little intervening particles or words, which are thrown in between the different parts of a sentence, and have not properly any construction; that is, they neither agree with nor govern any other words. The Rev. Mr. Lindley Murray, Gram. p. 29, very justly observes, "The interjection seems scarcely worthy of being considered as a part of artificial language or speech, being rather a branch of that natural language which we possess in common with the brute creation, and by which we express the sudden emotions and passions that hat actuate our frame." THE GRAMMATICAL RESOLUTION OF SENTENCES, In which the Parts of Speech are carefully explained. The Economy of Human Life. Pt. iv. Sect. iii. From the creatures of God let man learn wisdom, and apply to himself the instruction they give. Go to the desert, my son; observe the young stork of the wilderness, let him speak to thy heart; he beareth on his wings his aged sire, he lodgeth him in safety, and supplieth him with food. The piety of a child is sweeter than the incense of Persia offered to the sun; yea, more delicious than odours wafted from a field of Arabian spices, by the western gales. Be grateful then to thy father, for he gave thee life; and to thy mother, for she sustained thee. Hear the words of his mouth, for they are spoken for thy good: give ear to his admonition, for it proceeded from love. He hath watched for thy welfare, he hath toiled for thy ease; do honour therefore to his age, and let not his grey hairs be treated with irreverence. Forget not thy helpless infancy, nor the frowardness of thy youth, and indulge the infirmities of thy aged parents; assist and support them in the decline of life. So shall thy hoary heads go down to the grave in peace; and thine own children, in reverence of thy example, shall repay thy piety with filial love. From, a preposition. The, the definite article. Creatures, a noun substantive, plural number, oblique case, governed by the preposition from. Of, a preposition. God, a substantive, singular number, oblique case, governed by the preposition of. Let, an imperfect verb, used in forming the imperative mood. Man, a substantive, singular number, oblique case, governed by the verb let. Learn, an active verb, imperative mood, third person singular. Wisdom, a substantive, singular number, oblique case, governed by learn. And, a conjunction. Apply, verb active, imperative mood, third person singular. To, a preposition. Himself, the personal pronoun him, with self added to it, third person singular, masculine gender, oblique case, governed by to. The, as before. Instruction, substantive, singular number, oblique ease, governed by apply. They, personal pronoun, neuter gender, third person plural, nominative case: it supplies the place of creatures. Give, verb active, indicative mood, present time, third person plural, agreeing with its noun they. Go, neuter verb, imp. mood, second person singular. To, as before. The, as before. Desert, substantive, singular number, oblique case, governed by to. My, possessive pronoun, first person singular. Son, substantive, singular, nominative case. Observe, verb active, imperative mood, second person singular. The, as before. Young, adjective. Stork, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by observe. Of, as before. The, as before. Wilderness, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by of. Let, as before. Him, personal pronoun, third person singular, masculine, oblique case, governed by let. Speak, neuter verb, imperative mood, third person singular. To, as before. Thy, possessive pronoun, second person singular. Heart, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by to. He, personal pronoun, third person singular, masculine, nominative. Beareth, active verb, indicative mood, present tense, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative he. On, preposition. His, possessive pronoun, third person singular, masculine. Wings, substantive, plural, oblique case, governed by on. His, as before. Aged, adjective. Sire, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by beareth. He, as before. Lodgeth, active verb, indicative mood, present tense, third person singular, agreeing with he. Him, as before, governed by lodgeth. In, preposition. Safety, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by in. And, as before. Supplieth, active verb, indicative mood, present, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative he, understood. Him, as before, governed by supplieth. With, preposition. Food, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by with. The, as before. Piety, substantive, singular, nominative case. Of, as before. A, indefinite article. Child, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by of. Is, irregular neuter verb to be, indicative mood, present, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative, piety. Sweeter, adjective, comparative degree. Than, conjunction disjunctive. The, as before. Incense, substantive, singular, nominative case, coupled with piety by than. Of, as before. Persia, proper name, singular, oblique case, governed by of. Offered, passive participle of to offer. To the, as before. Sun, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by to. Yea, adverb. More delicious, adjective, comparative degree. Than, as before. Odours, substantive, plural, nominative case, coupled with piety by than. Wafted, participle passive of to waft. From a, as before. Field, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by from. Of, as before. Arabian, adjective. Spices, substantive, plural, oblique case, governed by of. By, preposition. The, as before. Western, adjective. Gales, substantive, plural, oblique case, governed by by. Be, irregular neuter verb to be, imperative mood, second person singular. Grateful, adjective. Then adverb. To thy, as before. Father, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by to. For, conjunction casual. He, as before. Gave, irregular verb active, indicative mood, imperfectly past tense, third person singular, agreeing with he. Thee, personal pronoun, second person singular, oblique case. Life, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by gave. And to thy, as before. Mother, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by to. For, as before. She, pronoun personal, third person singular, feminine gender, nominative case, supplying the place of mother. Sustained, verb active, indicative mood, imperfectly past, third person singular, agreeing with she. Thee, as before, governed by sustained. Hear, verb active, imperative mood, second person singular. The, as before. Words, substantive, plural, oblique case, governed by hear. Of his, as before. Mouth, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by of. For, as before. They, as before, supplying the place of words. Are spoken, irregular passive verb, indicative mood, present, third person plural, agreeing with they. For, preposition. Thy, as before. Good, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by for. Give, verb active, imperative mood, second person singular. Ear, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by give. To his, as before. Admonition, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by to. For, conjunction, as before. It, pronoun personal, third person singular, neuter, nominative case, supplying the place of admonition. Proceedeth, verb neuter, indicative mood, present, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative case it. From, as before. Love, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by from. He, as before. Hath watched, verb active, indicative mood, past tense, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative he. For, preposition. Thy, as before. Welfare, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by for. He, as before. Hath toiled, verb neuter, indicative mood, past tense, third person singular, agreeing with he. For, preposition. Thy, as before. Ease, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by for. Do, irregular verb active, imperative mood, second person singular. Honour, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by do. Therefore, adverb. To his, as before. Age, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by to. And, as before. Let, as before. Not, adverb. His, as before. Grey, adjective. Hairs, substantive, plural, oblique case, governed by let. Be, irregular verb, neuter, imperfect mood, third person plural. Created, participle passive of to treat. With, as before. Irreverence, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by with. Forget, verb active, imperative mood, second person singular. Not thy, as before. Helpless, adjective. Infancy, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by forget. Nor, conjunction disjunctive. The, as before. Frowardness, substantive, singular, oblique case, coupled with infancy by nor. Of thy, as before. Youth, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by of. And, as before. Indulge, verb active, imperative mood, second person singular. The, as before. Infirmities, substantive, plural, oblique case, governed by indulge. Of thy, as before. Aged, adjective. Parents, substantive, plural, oblique case, governed by of. Assist, verb active, imperative mood, second person singular. And, as before. Support, verb active, imperative mood, second person singular. Them, personal pronoun, third person plural, oblique case, governed by assist and support. In the, as before. Decline, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by in. Of, as before. Life, as before, governed by of. So, adverb. Shall, auxiliary verb, third person plural. Their, pronoun possessive, third person plural, nominative case. Hoary, adjective. Heads, substantive, plural, nominative case. Go, verb neuter, indicative mood, first future tense, third person plural, agreeing with its nominative, heads. Down, adverb. To the, as before. Grave, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by to. In, as before. Peace, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by in. And, as before. Thine, possessive pronoun, second person singular. Own, a word added to possessive pronouns, to render them more emphatic. Children, substantive, plural, nominative case. In, as before. Reverence, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by in. Of thy, as before. Example, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by of. Shall repay, verb active, indicative mood, first future tense, third person plural, agreeing with children. Thy, as before. Piety, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by repay. With, as before. Filial, adjective. Love, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by with. PROSODY OR THE TRUE PRONUNCIATION OF WORDS, AND THE LAWS OF VERSIFICATION. In Prosody we now must give the art Of uttering words aright, in every part; Where accent must be placed, and quantity, That they may be pronounced properly. As this part also doth relate to verse, The laws respecting it we shall rehearse. The word Prosody is derived from the Greek Prosōdia, and is that part of Grammar, says Dr. Johnson, which teaches the sound and quantity of syllables, and the measures of verse. "It is common," says the learned doctor, "for those that deliver the grammar of modern languages, to omit the prosody; but as the laws of metre are included in the idea of grammar, I have thought it proper to insert them." Prosody consists then of two parts; namely, the true utterance or pronunciation of syllables and words, and the laws respecting metre, or the composition of English verse. OF ACCENT AND QUANTITY. The accent marks the rise or fall of voice, But not according to caprice or choice; For rules there are to fix the short or long, And they must be the subject of our song. Pronunciation is said to be just, when every letter has its full and proper sound, and every syllable and word its proper accent; or, which in English versification is the same, its proper quantity. In the English language, however, accent may be considered merely as a species of emphasis; so that when one syllable of a word is distinguished by a stress, or emphasis, above the rest, it is said to be accented. We have before spoken of the sounds of the letters in the former part of this work; but rules for the accent or quantity of them belong to prosody, not to orthography, and they are subject to many exceptions. Every word of one syllable is either long or short, and this is determined by the presence or absence of final e; as băd, bāde; lăd, lāde; chĭd, chīde; nŏd, nōde; tŭn, tūne. The mark for a long sound is -; for a short one ˇ. Of this long and short syllable are all poetic feet in the English (as well as in all other languages) formed; and though Horace himself makes use of no less than twenty-eight several sorts of feet, yet do they all, and many more, arise from the various combinations of long and short syllables. The proportion of time allowed for the pronunciation of syllables is as two to one; for it requires twice the time to pronounce a long syllable that it does a short one. Instead of using the long and short to mark the accent in this part of prosody, we shall follow the mode which has been generally adopted, namely, of marking the syllable on which the stress or accent is to be laid with an acute, thus (´), which will answer every necessary purpose. The accent marks the rise or fall of the voice in discourse or reading, which indeed most people have naturally in a certain degree, except those who unfortunately indulge in what is called monotony, that is, a method of speaking always in the same tone of voice, This is more observable in persons who have a small and shallow voice, than in those of a more robust constitution, who are seldom habituated to one tone. In rightly placing the accent consists, as it were, the life of language, which acts by enchantment, when justly applied to well-chosen words, leads all the passions captive, and surprises even the soul itself in its inmost recesses. Words of one vowel mostly short we see, But they're made long by adding final e; Thus, ban makes ba'ne; bar, ba're; bath, ba'the; bit, bite; Can, ca'ne; din, di'ne; hop, ho'pe; pat, pa'te; quit, qu'ite. WORDS OF TWO SYLLABLES.Every English word of more than one syllable has a fixed and appropriate accent, to misplace which is to offend against the propriety of speech, no less than to pronounce the letters falsely. The accentuation of words, therefore, in the English language, may be brought under a few general rules; though several exceptions will doubtless remain. When endings to one syllable words are joined, Long the first syllable you mostly find.In words of two syllables, or dissyllables, which are formed by affixing a termination or ending to monosyllables, or words of one syllable, the accent is commonly laid on the first; as, chíldish, kíngdom, ácted, áctest, fáirer, fóremost, fúltess, gódly, lóving, meékly, scóffer, tóilsome, zeálous, peáceful, sínful, fáithless. When to the root you do the addition make, The latter mostly will the accent take.Words of two syllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the root, have commonly the accent on the latter; as, to begét, to beseém, to bestów, to forecást, to retúrn. In words whose letters do appear the same, By different meaning gaining different name, The sense always distinguishes the sound; In nouns that's short, which long in verbs is found.In words of two syllables that differ in sense, but not in the spelling, and are at once both nouns and verbs, the substantive generally has the accent on the former, and the verb on the latter syllable; thus: Nouns: (The first syllable long.) Verbs: (The last syllable long.) A'bsent. To Abse'nt. An A'bstract. To Abstra'ct. An A'ccent. To Acce'nt. A Ce'ment. To Ceme'nt. A Co'llect. To Colle'ct. A Co'ncert. To Conce'rt. A Co'nduct. To Condu'ct. A Co'nflict. To Confli'ct. A Co'nsort. To Conso'rt. A Co'ntest. To Conte'st. A Co'ntract. To Contra'ct. A Co'nvert. To Conve'rt. A Fe'rment. To Ferme'nt. Fre'quent. To Freque'nt. I'ncense. To Ince'nse. An O'bject. To Obje'ct. A Pre'sent. To Prese'nt. A Pro'ject. To Proje'ct. A Re'bel. To Rebe'l. A Re'cord. To Reco'rd. A Su'bject. To Subje'ct. A Su'rvey. To Surve'y. A To'rment. To Torme'nt. A Tra'nsport. To Transpo'rt.
To this rule, however, there are many exceptions; for nouns frequently have the accent on the latter syllable, and some verbs have it on the first; as, nouns: deli'ght, asse'nt, perfu'me, ele'ct, profa'ne; verbs: To wa'ter, to a'mble, to a'rgue, to ba'ffle, to ba'nish, to be'ckon. Words of two syllables that end in y, In or, our, ow, le, ish, you may descry; And c, er, age, en, et, the accent place Upon the first, and custom gives it grace.Words of two syllables ending in y place the accent on the former syllable; as, cra’nny, pa’rty, du'ty, na'vy: in or or our; as, e'rror, te'rror, fa'vour, ho'nour: in ow; as, sha'dow, fa'llow, wi'llow, wa'llow; except allo'w: in le; as, ba'ttle, ca'ttle, ta'ble, bi'ble: in ish; as, da'rkish, mau'kish, E'nglish: in c; as, ca'mbric, ru'bric, mu'sic: in age; as, do'tage, cou'rage, no'nage, ca'bbage: in en; as, ha'sten, le'ssen, fa'sten, lo'osen: in er; ba'ker, qua'ker, ba'tier, sca'tter: in et; as, pa'cket, pro'phet, di'et, qui'et. If verbs do make their close in final e, The accent on the last we always see.Verbs consisting of two syllables, and ending in e, have the accent on the last; as, to esca'pe, to rece'de, to compo'se, to compri'se, to compu'te. If these a diphthong in the last do take, The accent on the last we always make.Verbs which have a diphthong in the last syllable always have the accent there also; as, to concea'l, to appea'l, to appea'se, to revea'l. Or if two consonants the same do close, No other syllable the accent knows.Verbs which end in two consonants have the accent on the last syllable; as, to ame'nd, to atte'nd, to prete’nd, to comme'nd. Nouns of two syllables are often seen, With diphthongs in the last, as well I ween; And when it happens that this is the case, The accent on the last we mostly place; But sometimes on the first its seat will be, As in the note you certainly may see.When nouns of two syllables have a diphthong in the latter syllable, they frequently have the accent on that syllable; as, applau'se, arra'y, displa'y, ano'int, abroa'd, approa'ch; but sometimes the accent is on the first; as, ba'rgain, a’nguish, cu'rtain, mou'ntain, fou'ntain. When nouns which of two syllables partake, Have vowels two, pronounc'd quite separate, The first to the first syllable will cleave, The other to the last we always leave.Nouns of two syllables that have two vowels, which are separated in their pronunciation, have always the accent on the first; as, li'on, ri'ot, ti'or, ru'in, gi'ant. WORDS OF THREE SYLLABLES. If to dissyllables an ending's bound, That which before was long maintains its sound.Trisyllables, or words of three syllables, which are formed by the addition of a syllable to those which before consisted only of two, retain the accent of the primitive word; as, beau'tiful, du'tiful, li'veliness, lo'veliness, rea'diness, conte'mner, agree’ment, comme'nding, assu'rance. If to such words a syllable's prefix'd, The accent on the root is always fix’d.So, if a syllable be prefixed to a word consisting of two syllables, the accent of the primitive word is likewise retained; as, bespa'tter, inco'nstant, unple'asant, unwo'rthy, ackno'wledge, unle'arned, une'qual, unfu'itful. Words of three syllables that end in ous, Al, or ion, accent the first; as, a'rduous, And ma'rvellous: in al; as, ca'pital, A'nimal, se'nsual: likewise in e ; As, sa'nction, me'ntion, pe'nsion. Words of three syllables that end in at Ent, ce, accent the first; as, propagate, A'rrogate, a'bdicate, and de'rogate. Mai'ntenance, cou'ntenance, and e'legance, E'loquence, re'verence, and a'rrogance. And those which have their close in ent; Di'ligent, te'stament, and co'ntinent. When words accented on the last give rise To words in ce, which need be no surprise, The accent in the midst will take its chance; As, adhe'rence, defi'ance, reli'ance. Words of three syllables that end in y Take accent on the first; as, mo'desty, Vi'ctory, su'bsidy, and li'berty. The accent's on the first of words in ude; Lo'ngitude, la'titude, and fo'rtitude. The accent's in the midst of words in tor; Specta'tor, testa'tor, and crea'tor: But to this rule exception we may find, O'rator, se'nator, and all such kind. If in the midst a diphthong shall be found, The accent in that place will take its ground.As, endea'vour, displea'sure, unsou'ndness. WORDS OF FOUR OR MORE SYLLABLES. Words of this kind most commonly retain The accent of the words whence they are ta'en.Words of four or more syllables, generally called polysyllables, because they consist of many syllables, mostly retain the accent of the words from whence they are derived; thus, co'mpetency, ho'nourable, innu'merable, commu'nicableness, incomprehe'nsible. But those which have their close in ion, Accent the last but two, perhaps but one.Words of four or more syllables that end in ion, have the accent on the last syllable but two, or rather one, for tion is usually sounded shon, as if it were but one syllable; as, salva'tion, admira'tion, interroga'tion, indigna'tion, revolu'tion. Those words which make their end in ator, Accent the last but one; dedica'tor, Fabrica'tor, and prevarica'tor. And those which have their close in ty, Accent the last but two; acti'vity, Ferti'lity, and even decli'vity. So those which make their ending ous, Observe a similar rule; uxo'rious, Luxu'rious, likewise conte'ntious. Some too which make their end in ble, Accent the first we see; a'micable. Sometimes, however, this rule is passed by, And on the second, th' accent we descry, As in ado'rable. And 'tis decreed That words in bly the same rule always need. If vowels 'fore two consonants will be, The second takes it, as its right, we see; As in combu'stible, conde'mnable, Rema'rkable, likewise comme'ndable. Some words of many syllables are found Of several vowels to extend the sound; The third, fourth, fifth, and even the last but one; But still the last is of the weaker tone.Some polysyllables, or words of many syllables, seem to have two accents, or two syllables on which the stress is laid in utterance; as, the second, third, fourth, or fifth vowel from the last, though the quantity of the latter be not so loudly sounded in the delivery. Thus: i'gnomi'ny, ne'cessa'ry, au'dito'ry, a'rbitra'ry, a'mbula'tory, a'nnive'rsary, ma'gnani'mity, ha'bitabi'lity, a'ntiqua'ry, a'limo'ny, co'mpatibi'lity, corru'ptibi'lity, co'mpre'hensibi'lity, i'ncomprehe'nsibi'lity, i'ncorru'ptibi'lity: but words of this length can seldom or never be admitted in poetical composition. Four or more syllables that end in ness, The first and last long syllables confess.As, ri'ghteousne'ss, te'diousne'ss, va'riablene'ss; except despi'tefulne'ss, forge’tfulne'ss.It may be necessary to observe, that the above rules are not advanced as complete or infallible, but they are proposed as useful. Almost every rule of every language has its exceptions; and in English, as in other tongues, much must be learned by example and authority. Back to the vowels now convey your eye, And there some rules of quantity descry, In words that many syllables deny. Or the beginning of the present Part, Where rules are given agreeably to art.See p. 92, &c. In general they short or long are found, But those which to such consonants are bound, As close the lips, can ne'er extend the sound. Emphatic words we justly still produce; But ev’ry sign is short by sacred use. All the signs are short, except a particular emphasis be laid upon them, which is seldom the case: these signs are, a, an, the, for, by, with, to, from, &c.; but whatever word of one syllable ends with a letter that closes the mouth can never be long. A vowel or syllable is long when the accent is on the vowel; which occasions it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following letters; as, fāll, bāle, mōōd, hōūse, crēāture. A syllable is short when the accent is on the consonant; which occasions the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter; as, ăct, băn, băttle, bănĭsh, gŏblĕt. OF VERSIFICATION; OR, THE LAWS OF POETICAL COMPOSITION.As there are very few persons who do not sometimes amuse themselves with reading poetical compositions; and as the perusal of this lively and forcible mode of exhibiting nature and sentiment may, when chaste and judicious, be an innocent and instructive employment of a moderate portion of our time, it seems necessary to give the student some idea of that part of Grammar which explains the principles of versification, and which we shall accompany with examples; so that in reading poetry he may be the better able to judge of its correctness, and relish its beauties. The laws respecting poetry, or verse, As part of Grammar, we shall now rehearse. Ranging of syllables therefore doth consist In certain rules, which no one can resist. Two or three syllables English feet compose, But quantities distinguish them from prose; By long and short, in various stations placed, Our English verse harmoniously is graced.Two or three syllables connected form a poetic foot. These are called feet, because it is by their assistance that the voice, as it were, steps along through the verse, in a measured pace; and it is necessary that the syllables which mark this regular movement of the voice should, in some measure, be distinguished from the others. This distinction was made among the ancient Romans; and the long syllable, being of more importance than the short, marked the movement. Every foot has, from nature, powers peculiar to itself; and it is upon the knowledge and proper application of these powers, that the pleasure and effect of numbers chiefly depend. With short and long heroic feet we raise; But those to vary is the poet's praise; For the same sounds perpetually disgust: Dryden to this variety was just.Epic, or heroic poetry, consists of five short and five long syllables intermixed, but not always so very strictly as never to change that order. The celebrated Poet-laureat, Mr. Dryden, has varied them with admirable beauty, beginning his heroic verse sometimes with a long syllable followed by two short ones, and other changes, which none but a master will be able to venture upon. The following marks the difference of feet, And of their forms the just and proper seat. Four forms there are two syllables contain, And four of three we find there will remain. The Pyrrhic form you easily may know: In two short syllables 'twill always flow. Spondee requires two long; and then the next, Iambic, follows close among the rest: Its first is short, the other must be long; And this it will demand in every song. Reverse the Iambus, and you then will find The long one first, the short remain behind: This forms the Trochee. And the next in place The Dactyl is, which fills its proper space With one long syllable, and with two short, And always sounds the more majestic for't. When two that's short before one long we find, The Anapœst to claim it is inclined. When with one short, then long, then short again We meet, the Amphibrach they form, ’tis plain. Three short ones then the Tribrach doth require; 'Tis all an English poet can desire. Of these poetic feet, however, it will be proper, before we proceed any further, to lay before the student a short explanation: The Pyrrhic foot, which is very rapid in pronunciation, has both the words or syllables unaccented, and consequently short; as, ŏn tŏp. Thus, ĭ ĭ. The Spondee has an even, strong, and steady pace, and both the words or syllables accented; as, păle, mŏŏn. Thus, - -. The Iambic foot is of a light and sprightly nature, and is greatly used in English verse. It has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented; as, betray. Thus, ĭ -. The Trochee is the contrary to the Iambus, and is fit to express weak and languid motions. The Dactyl is very quick, and has been compared by some to the rapid motion or gallop of a horse. It has the first syllable accented, and the two last unaccented; as, lāboŭrĕr. Thus, - ĭ ĭ. The Anapœst is an inverted Dactyl, and has been compared to a sprightly trot, and a motion proper to excite and enrage. It has the two first syllables unaccented, and the last accented; as, cŏntrăvēne. Thus, ĭ ĭ -. The Amphibrach has the first and last syllable unaccented, and the middle one accented; as, dĕlīghtfŭl. Thus, ĭ - ĭ. The Tribrach is of a very rapid nature, as is the Pyrrhic, having all its syllables unaccented; as, ŏn thĕ tŏp. Thus, ĭ ĭ ĭ. Four of the above may be denominated principal feet, because pieces of poetry may be wholly, or chiefly, composed of any of them: such are the Iambus, the Trochee, the Dactyl, and .the Anapœst. The other four may be termed secondary feet; for their principal use is to diversify the numbers, and to improve the verse. It is not our intention to extend this part of our Grammar unnecessarily; but it seems proper to explain the nature of the principal feet, and to lay down examples from our poets of verses composed therein, that the student, whose taste leads him to this kind of exercise, may be furnished with proper information. But, first, it may not be amiss to observe, that rhyme is the correspondence or agreement of the last sound of one verse to the last sound or syllable of another Iambic verses may be divided into several species, according to the number of feet or syllables of which they are composed. Thus: 1. The shortest form of the English Iambic consists of an Iambus, with an additional short syllable; as, Dĭsdaīnĭng Complaining Consenting Repenting There is not any poem of this measure in the English language, but it may be met with in stanzas. The Iambus, with this addition, is like the Amphibrach. 2. The second form of our Iambic measure comprises verses of four syllables, or two Iambuses; as, Thŏu ārt ĭn trū A forward youth Dryden Wĭth rāvĭsh'd eārs The monarch hears. Addison This form sometimes takes an additional short syllable; as, Upōn ă moūntaĭn, Beside a fountain. 3. The third form consists of six syllables, or three Iambuses; as, Thĭs whīle wĕ āre ăbroād, Shall we not touch our lyre? Shall we not sing an ode? Or shall that holy fire, In us that strongly glow’d, In this cold air expire? Drayton. Thĕ stārs wïth deēp ămāze, Stand fix’d in stedfast gaze, And will not take their flight, For all the morning light. Milton. This sometimes takes an additional short syllable; as, Oŭr heārts nŏ lōngĕr lānguĭsh. 4. The fourth form is made up of eight syllables, or four Iambuses, which is the usual measure for short poems; but sometimes very long pieces are composed in it; as, And māy ăt last mÿ weārÿ āge Find out some peaceful hermitage, The hairy gown and mossy cell, Where 1 may sit, and nightly spell Of every star the night doth show, And every herb that sips the dew. Milton. Frŏm nātŭre tōō I tāke my rūle, To shun contempt and ridicule. I never, with important air, In conversation overbear. Can grave and formal pass for wise, When men the solemn owl despise? My tongue within my lips I rein: For who talks much, must talk in vain. Gay 5. The fifth species of English Iambics, the common measure of epic or heroic and tragic poetry, consists of ten syllables, or five Iambuses; and it is frequently adopted in religious subjects; as, Hăppy thĕ mān, whŏse hēav'n-dĭrēctĕd fēēt Avoid the crowded path where sinners meet; Who shuns the lofty seat of impious pride; Of men, who dare Jehovah’s law deride. Miss Steele. This is the usual measure of blank verse, or poetry without rhyme; as, O thōu sŭprēme, ĕtērnăl soūrce ŏf gōōd! Of good, which knows no shadow of decay! Wilt thou, all-gracious, beam one heavenly smile; Break through the gloom, and raise my grov'ling soul; And with resistless, sweet attraction draw To thee, the centre of immortal joys! Miss Steele. 6. The sixth form of our lambics is generally called the Alexandrine measure, and consists of twelve syllables, or six Iambuses; as, A nēēdlĕss Alĕxāndrĭne ēnds thĕ sōng, That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along. Pope. Wăllēr wās smoōth, bŭt-Drydĕn taūght tō joīn The varying verse, the full resounding line, The long majestic march, and energy divine. Pope. Alexandrine verses are very seldom used; and when they are, it is only for the sake of variety, or in order to make the sound an echo to the sense. The pause in the Alexandrine line should be always at the sixth syllable. 7. The seventh and last form of our Iambic measure sure is made up of fourteen syllables, or seven Iambuses; as, Thĕ Lōrd dĕscēndĕd frōm ăbōve, ănd bōw'd thĕ heāvĕns hīgh. This kind of verse has, for a considerable time, been looked upon as too long, and has therefore been broken into a soft lyric measure, consisting of eight syllables and six, or four and three Iambuses; as, Tŏ lŏrdlĭngs prōud I tūne my lay, Whŏ feāst ĭn bōw'r ŏr hāll: Though dukes they be, to dukes I say, That pride must have a fall. Gay. Pŏpe hās thĕ tālĕnt wēll tŏ speāk, Bŭt nōt tŏ reāch thĕ eār: His loudest voice is low and weak, The Dean too deaf to hear. Swift. Whĕn āll shăll praīse, ănd ēv’ry lāy Devote a wreath to thee, That day, for come it will, that day Shall I lament to see. Lewis to Pope. In all the above measures the accents are to be placed on the even syllables; and every line considered by itself is more harmonious, as this rule is more strictly observed. The variations necessary to pleasure belong to the art of poetry, not to the rules of grammar. Trochaic verse is of several kinds, viz: 1. The shortest Trochaic verse in our language consists of a Trochee and a long syllable; as, Hēre wĕ māy, Think and pray, Before death Stops our breath: Other joys Are but toys. Walton's Angler. In ămāze Lost, I gaze: Can our eyes Reach thy size? May my lays Swell with praise, Worthy me, Worthy thee. Swift. 2. The second English form of the Trochee consists of two feet, or four syllables, but is seldom adopted; as, On thĕ moūntain By a fountain. It sometimes contains two feet, and an additional long syllable; as In thĕ dāys ŏf ōld, Stories plainly told, Lovers felt annoy. Old Ballad. 3. The third species consists of six syllables, or three Trochees; as, Whēn oŭr heārts ăre moūrnĭng. Or, of three Trochees and a long syllable; as, Bÿ thĕ streāms thăt ēvĕr flōw, By the fragrant winds that blow By the hero's armed shades, Glitt'ring through the gloomy glades. Pope. 4. The fourth species consists of eight syllables, or four Trochees; as, Roūnd ŭs roārs thĕ tēmpĕst loūdĕr. This form may take an additional long syllable; as, Idlĕ, āftĕr dīnnĕr, īn hĭs chaīr, Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair. This measure is not very common. 5. The fifth species is likewise uncommon, and consists of ten syllables, or five Trochees; as, All thăt wālk ŏn foōt, ŏr rīde ĭn chāriŏts, All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 6. The sixth form consists of twelve syllables, or six Trochees; as, On ă moūntaĭn, strētch’d bĕneāth ă hoār˘y wīllŏw, Lay a shepherd swain, and view’d the rolling billow. This seems to be the longest Trochaic line that the English language admits; and it is to be observed, that in all these measures the accent is to be placed on the odd syllables. The Dactylic measure is very uncommon; as, Frōm thĕ lŏw pleāsŭres ŏf thīs făllĕn nātŭre, Rise we to higher, &c. The Anapœstic verses are divided into several species; thus: 1. The shortest Anapœstic verse consists of three syllables, or a single Anapœst; as, Bŭt ĭn vaīn They complain. This measure is rather ambiguous; for, by laying the stress of the accent on the first and third syllable, it would become Trochaic. Therefore, the first and simplest form of our genuine Anapœstic verse is made up of two Anapœsts, or six syllables; as, Bŭt hĭs coūrăge 'găn faīl, For no arts could prevail. This form admits an additional short syllable; as, Thĕn hĭs coūrăge 'găn faīl hĭm, For no arts could avail him. 2. The second species consists of three Anapœsts, or nine syllables; as, O yĕ woōds, sprĕad yoŭr brānchĕs ăpāce, To your deepest recesses I fly; I would hide from the beasts of the cnace; I would vanish from every eye. This pleasing measure is much used, both in solemn and cheerful subjects. 3. The third species consists of twelve syllables, or four Anapœsts; as, Măy I gōvĕrn m˘y pāssiŏns wĭth ābsŏlŭte swāy, And grow wiser and better as life wears away. Dr. Pope. Whĕn thĕ treēs ăre ăl bāre, nŏt ă leāf tŏ bĕ seēn, And all nature disrob'd of her mantle of green, When the peasant, inactive, stands shiv'ring with cold, And the innocent flock runs for shelter to fold Tĭs thĕ voīce ŏf thĕ slūggărd: I heār hĭm cŏmplaĭn, You have wak'd me too soon, I must slumber again. As the door on its hinges, so he on his bed Tŭrns hĭs sīdes, ănd hĭs shoūldĕrs, ănd hĭs hēavy heād. Dr. Watts. In this last line, says its excellent author, the natural and proper accent lies not on the word his, where the verse seems to require it; but on the word heavy: yet it happens to have a sort of beauty in it here, to keep the natural accent, and thereby you show the heaviness of the sluggard more emphatically, while he suffers not the verse to run swift, but smooth and harmonious. In the first two lines of the following quotation a short syllable is added, but it does not affect the melody: 'Twĭxt thĕ sōns ŏf thĕ stāge, wĭthoŭt pēnsiŏns ŏr plācĕs, And the vagabond Jews, are some similar cases; Since time out of mind, or they're wrong'd much by slander, Both lawless, alike, have been sentenc'd to wander, Then faith 'tis full time, we appeal to the nation, To be join'd in this bill for na-tu-ra-li-za-tion; Lard, that word's so uncouth! - 'tis so irksome to speak it! But 'tis Hebrew, I believe, and that's taste, as I take it. The above is part of a prologue to the Merchant of Venice, by Cunningham, when the bill passed for naturalizing the Jews. The last line is lengthened. The Anapœstic verse likewise admits of a short syllable at the end of the following line, as well as in the two first of the preceding example; thus: On thĕ wārm cheĕk ŏf yōuth, smĭles ănd rōsĕs ăre blēnding. And in this measure a syllable is frequently retrenched from the first foot; as, Whĕn prēsĕnt wĕ lōve, ănd whĕn ābsĕnt ăgrēe, I think not of Iris, nor Iris of me. Dryden. On Sūndăy, bĕdēck'd ĭn hĭs hōmespŭn ărrāy, At church he's the loudest to chaunt or to pray; He sits to a dinner of plain English food, Though simple the pudding, his appetite's good At night, when the priest and exciseman are gone, He quaffs at the alehouse with Roger and John, Then reels to his pillow, and dreams of no ill; No monarch more bless'd than the man of the mill. The Miller, by Cunningham. The above measures are the different forms of the principal feet: they may be varied by many combinations, and sometimes by double endings, either with or without rhyme; so that, to these measures, and their laws, may be reduced every species of English verse. English versification admits but of few licenses, except a Synalœpha; for, By Synalœpha final vowels give way, That those in front of following words may stay. This is an elision of the letter e in the before a vowel; as, Th' eternal God will not disdain To hear an infant sing. Dr. Watts. And sometimes of o in to, when it occurs in a similar situation; as, T' express ourselves with modesty. Another license or liberty which the laws of versification allows, is that called Synœresis, by which two short vowels coalesce into one syllable; as, question, special, where cial and tion are pronounced as one syllable only: or a word is contracted by the expulsion of a short vowel before a liquid, that is, before l, m, n, r. Or, Synœresis whenever it indites, Still into one two syllables unites. Thus; by the elision of e: To breathe th' enliv'ning spirit, and to fix The gen’rous purpose in the glowing breast. Thomson. Even is frequently contracted into one syllable; as, Yet ev'n athirst he sweetly sings Of Nectar and Elysian springs. Broome. The vowel i is sometimes omitted by elision; as, My sister transcrib'd it last night to his sorrow, And the public shall see't if I live till to-morrow. Swift. So it is and it was are frequently contracted; as, Now, from thy bosom doom’d to stray, 'Tis only beauteous in decay. Broome. 'Twas sung of old how one Amphion, Could by his verses tame a lion. Ibid. And likewise I would into I'd; as, I'd then inform you of your Cœlia's cares, And try the eloquence of female tears; Fearless I’d pass where desolation reigns, Tread the wild waste, or burning Lybian plains. Ibid. Ibid. We might add a great many examples of the contraction of two words into one by our most eminent poets, but the above may be sufficient to answer the purpose of an elementary treatise: the ingenious student will be able to distinguish them with great ease. If any word in a line of poetry have two sounds, which is sometimes the case, it will be proper that the sound which most favours the metre and the rhyme should be attended to. To favour the metre, is to read the syllables with distinctness, or to contract two into one, according as the metre requires; as the word glittering must make three syllables in this line: All glittering in arms he stood: but in the following line it makes but two; as, All glitt’ring in his arms he stood. The metre is sometimes favoured by placing the accent on different syllables in some few words that will admit of it; as the word avenue must have the accent on the first syllable in this line: Wide a'venues for cruel death: but in the following line the accent must be placed on the second syllable; as, A wide ave'nue to the grave. To favour the rhyme, is to pronounce the last word of the line so as to make it chime, or correspond in sound with the preceding line, where the word admits of two sorts of pronunciation; as, Were I but once from bondage free, I'd never sell my liberty. Here the word liberty must be pronounced as if it were written with a double ee, to rhyme with the word free: but if the verse run thus: My soul ascends above the sky And triumphs in her liberty; the word liberty must be sounded as though it ended in i, that the word sky may have a juster rhyme to it. So in this verse: Unbind my feet, and break my chain, For I shall ne'er rebel again. Here the diphthong ai must have its full sound in the word again; but in the following verse it must be pronounced agen: Put Daniel in the lion’s den; When he's releas'd, he’ll pray again. We shall conclude this part of our undertaking with a few general observations, which the young student would do well to imprint on his memory. Let the poetry always answer for itself; but the reader should confine himself to the natural accent. In general, it must be maintained, that the common rules of reading prose hold good in reading all these kinds of poetry: nor is the reader under the necessity of knowing before hand what particular kind of verse he is going to read, if he will but follow the common method of pronouncing the English tongue; but let him humour the sense a little, as he ought to do in reading compositions in prose, by articulating swiftly or slowly, according to the nature of the subject, whether it be of a grave and serious, or of a light and merry cast; and if he has acquainted himself a little with the nature of verse, and accustomed himself to the perusal of poetical compositions, where the poet has performed his part well, the lines will yield their proper harmony. Thus it appears to be much easier to read verse well, than many persons imagine, if they would but content themselves to pronounce it as they do common language, as Dr. Watts Dr. Watt's well observes, without affecting to add new music to the lines, by an unnatural turn and tone of the voice. THE ART OF POINTING. The art of pointing we must briefly show: It is of use for ev'ry one to know. All sentences in parts, the learn'd declare, Divided into portions truly are. These sev’ral parts we now shall make appear, And show by rules, which are exceeding clear. These stops point out with truth the time of pause A sentence doth require at ev'ry clause. At every Comma stop while one you count. At Semicolon two is the amount, A Colon doth require the time of three, The Period four, as you below may see. The use of points or stops is for the purpose of dividing a written composition into sentences or parts of sentences, marking the different pauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require. The stops or pauses, which are considered as intervals in reading, are no more than four; though there be other marks to be taken notice of, but for other purposes. Their names are as follow: The Comma, marked thus , The Semicolon ; The Colon : The Period, or full point .
In the following brief observations on the points we shall be as short and comprehensive as the nature of the subject will admit, and refer the learner to the different works which have been expressly written concerning it. OF THE COMMA. A comma represents the shortest pause, and consequently marks the least constructive parts of a sentence. The time a person should stop at a comma is while he may count one. Its use will be best explained by the following rules and examples: Rule I. A simple sentence has but one subject, and one finite verb; therefore it requires no comma: or, the nominative case of the noun must not be separated from the verb by the insertion of a comma: or, the antecedent cannot be separated from the verb by a comma; as, "It is honourable to be a friend to the unfortunate." "All finery is a mark of littleness." II. When the connexion of the different parts of a simple sentence is interrupted by an imperfect phrase (which contains no assertion, or does not amount to a proposition or sentence), a comma is introduced before and after it; as, "The tutor, by instruction and discipline, lays the foundation of the pupil's future honour." "Charity, like the sun, brightens all its objects." III. When two or more nouns occur in the same construction, they are parted by commas; as, "Self-conceit, presumption, and obstinacy, destroy the prospect of many a youth." "In our health, life, possessions, connexions, or pleasures, there are causes of decay imperceptibly working." IV. Two or more adjectives belonging to the same substantive are separated by commas; as, "He was an active, industrious, prosperous, and wealthy person." "An upright mind will discern what is just and true, lovely, honest, and of good report." V. Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, and immediately following one another, are separated by commas; as, "A friend unbosoms freely, advises justly, assists readily, adventures boldly, takes all patiently, defends resolutely, and continues a friend unchangeably." VI. Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding each other, are separated by commas; as, "To live soberly, righteously, and piously, comprehends the whole of our duty." VII. When a conjunction is divided by a phrase or sentence from the verb to which it belongs, it is separated by commas; as, "Christianity has discouraged, and, in some degree, abolished slavery." VIII. Expressions in a direct address are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as, "Continue, my dear children, to make virtue your principal study." IX. The case absolute, and the infinitive mood absolute, are separated by commas from the body of the sentence; as, "His father dying, he succeeded to the estate." X. Nouns in apposition, that is, added by way of illustration, when accompanied with adjuncts, are set off by commas; as, "The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun." "Hope, the balm of life, soothes us under every misfortune." XI. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with some marked variety, they require to be distinguished by a comma; as, "It is the province of superiors to direct, of inferiors, to obey; of the learned, to be instructive, of the ignorant, to be docile; of the old, to be communicative, of the young, to be advisable and diligent." We are aware that some gentlemen will consider this as rather stiff pointing; but, if they closely attend to the following example, which is a case in point, their scruples will be set aside: "Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull; Strong, without rage; without o’erflowing, full." XII. When circumstances introduced are of importance they may be separated by commas; as, "Opulence increases our gratifications, and, in the same proportion, our desires and demands." OF THE SEMICOLON. This point is used when a part of a sentence requires a greater pause than a comma, but when the sense is imperfect, and needs some other member to render it complete. The time for stopping at a semicolon is double the length of that at a comma; as, "Make a proper use of your time; for the loss of it can never be regained." "To give an early preference to honour above gain, when they stand in competition; to despise every advantage which cannot be attained without dishonest arts; to brook no meanness, and to stoop to no dissimulation; are the indications of a great mind, the presages of future eminence and usefulness in life." OF THE COLON. This point requires a longer pause than that at a semicolon, and is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon; but not so independent as separate distinct sentences. It may be used in the following cases: I. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed by some further illustration of the subject; as, "Apply thyself to learning: it will redound to thine honour." "Keep close to thy business: it will keep thee from wickedness, poverty, and shame." II. When one or more semicolons have preceded, and a still greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting or concluding sentiment; as, "A divine legislator, uttering his voice from heaven; an Almighty Governor, stretching forth his arm to punish or reward; informing us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter for the righteous, and of indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked: these are the considerations which overawe the world, which support integrity, and check guilt." III. The colon is commonly used when an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced; as, "The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words: 'God is love.'" "He frequently said: 'I have done with the world, and am willing to leave it.'" OF THE PERIOD. When a sentence is so complete and independent, as not to be connected in construction with the following sentence, it is marked with a period. The pause required at a period is while a person may count four. Some sentences are independent of each other, both in their sense and construction; as, "Truth is the basis of every virtue. It is the voice of reason. Let its precepts be religiously obeyed. Never transgress its limits. Every deviation from truth is criminal. Abhor a falsehood. Let your words be ingenuous." A period should be used after every abbreviated word; as, P.S. for postscript; N.B. nota bene; A.D. anno domini; O.S. old style; N.S. new style, &c. Beside the points above mentioned, which mark the pauses in discourse, there are others which denote a different modulation of voice, in correspondence to the sense. These are, The Interrogation, marked thus ? The Exclamation, or Admiration !
OF THE INTERROGATION. A note of interrogation is used when a question is asked; as, "What shall I do?" "Who will go for us?" "Will not God punish the wicked?" OF THE EXCLAMATION, OR ADMIRATION. A note of exclamation, or admiration, is used to express sudden emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &c. ; as, "How beautiful is the face of nature!" "How majestic is the sun!" "These are thy glorious works, Parent of Good! Almighty!! Thine this universal frame! How wondrous fair! Thyself how wondrous then!" OF THE PARENTHESIS. A parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary information, or useful remark, introduced into the body of a sentence obliquely, and which may be omitted without injuring the construction; it is marked thus ( at the beginning, and ) at the end; as, "Know ye not, brethren (for I speak to them that know the law), how that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he liveth?" "There is a certain species of religion (if we can call it by that name), which is placed wholly in speculation and belief, in the regularity of external homage, or in fiery zeal about contested opinions." "Approach, and read (for thou canst read) the lay Grav'd on the stone, beneath yon aged thorn." Beside the above there are other characters, which are frequently made use of in composition; thus: A Caret, marked thus ^, is placed where some word happens to be left out in writing, and inserted over the line. This mark is also called a Circumflex, when placed over a vowel to denote a long syllable; as, Euphrâtes. The Acute Accent; as, fáncy. — The Grave; as, fàvour. A Hyphen (-) is employed in dividing a syllable at the end of a line, or in connecting compounded words; as, self-love. A Diæresis (··) consists of two points placed over one of the two vowels that would otherwise make a diphthong, and shows that they are to be separately pronounced; as, aërial. An Asterisk (*) refers to some remark at the bottom of the page. A Section (§) marks the division of a discourse or chapter. A Paragraph (¶) denotes the beginning of a new subject, and is chiefly used in the Bible. A Quotation is marked by inverted commas; thus, " ". An Index or Hand (☞) points out a remarkable passage, or something requiring attention. A Brace } is used to join several lines together, especially a triplet in poetry, having the same rhyme. Crotchets or Brackets, thus [ ], serve to inclose a word or sentence which is to be explained in a note, or the explanation itself, or a word or sentence intended to supply some deficiency, or rectify some mistake. THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. It was formerly the custom to begin every noun with a capital letter; but that practice being afterwards looked upon as troublesome, beside giving a crowded appearance to printed books, it was discontinued; yet it was proper to begin with a capital, 1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other composition. 2. The first word after a period or full point; and, if the two sentences be independent of each other, after a note of interrogation or exclamation. But if several interrogative or exclamatory sentences follow each other; or if the construction of the latter sentences depends on the former, all of them, except the first, may begin with a small letter. 3. The appellations of the Deity. 4. Proper names of persons, places, countries, towns, streets, mountains, rivers, ships, &c. 5. Adjectives derived from proper names of places. 6. Words of particular importance. 7. The first word of a quotation, or an example. 8. Every noun or principal word in the titles of books. 9. The first word of every line in poetry. 10. The pronoun I, and the interjection O. Other words, however, beside those above mentioned, may begin with a capital, when they are remarkably emphatical, or the principal subject of the composition. OF PARAGRAPHS. It may not be amiss to insert a few general observations on the division of a written composition into paragraphs. Different subjects, unless they be very short, or numerous in a small compass, should be separated into paragraphs. When one subject is continued to a considerable length, the longer divisions of it should be put into paragraphs. It would be proper, when it can be done, to form the breaks at sentiments of the greatest weight, or that call for peculiar attention. The facts, premises, and conclusions of a subject, sometimes point out the separations into paragraphs; but even these, when of great length, will again require subdivisions at their most distinctive parts. In cases which require a connected subject to be formed into several paragraphs, a suitable turn of expression, exhibiting the connexion of the broken parts, will give beauty and force to the division. L. Alexander, Printer, 277, Whitechapel Road.