Last Change: 28.10.2015
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> <?xml-model href="../Schema/Schema.rng" type="application/xml" schematypens="http://relaxng.org/ns/structure/1.0"?> <grammar_book> <grammar_header> <gr_id>0</gr_id> <gr_author_id>0</gr_author_id> <gr_last_edit by="Kleiber, Ingo">28.10.2015</gr_last_edit> <gr_author>Meiklejohn, John Miller Dow</gr_author> <gr_author_gender>Male</gr_author_gender> <gr_education/> <gr_occupation/> <gr_title>An Easy English Grammar For Beginners; Being a Plain Doctrine of Words and Sentences. Book the First. Of Words and Their Changes.</gr_title> <gr_short_title>An Easy English Grammar for Beginners</gr_short_title> <gr_title_add>Here a little, and there a little.</gr_title_add> <gr_publisher>Simpkin, Marshall, and Co., Stationers' Hall Court</gr_publisher> <gr_place_of_publication>London</gr_place_of_publication> <gr_year_publication>1862</gr_year_publication> <gr_year_edition>1862</gr_year_edition> <gr_no_edition>1</gr_no_edition> <gr_no_of_pages/> <gr_no_of_words/> <gr_language>English</gr_language> <gr_variety>British English</gr_variety> <gr_type>Teaching Grammar</gr_type> <gr_form>Textbook</gr_form> <gr_target_institution>School</gr_target_institution> <gr_target_audience>Beginner</gr_target_audience> <gr_target_audience_author>Beginners</gr_target_audience_author> <gr_tags/> </grammar_header> <grammar_text> <div0 description="front_matter"> <div1 description="advertisment" name="The Herbert Series of Short School Books"> <paragraph> ALEXANDER IRELAND & CO., Pall Mall Court, Manchester, propose to issue, at intervals, a SERIES OF SCHOOL BOOKS, Under the above title.</paragraph> <paragraph> There is one standing objection against most existing school books, and that is their high price, - a consequence of their large size. A boy has put into his hand a school book which costs from two to ten shillings, and which he cannot work through within three or four years. Long before the end of this time the boy has become disgusted with the book - and, perhaps, with the subject also. He abhors the very sight of its well-thumbed pages. He has a strong feeling, too, that he has not been making progress in all these years. If the very same book had been given him in portions, each of which might have been fully conquered and made part of his mental stock in half a year, the pupil would have had a strong feeling of progress and mental power, and would have hailed his arrival at a new part of the subject with keen pleasure.</paragraph> <paragraph> It is on this principle that the present series is to be constructed. Each book will contain only such a quantity of matter as it is believed a boy of average abilities may, with average application, fully master in the course of half a year. Each book will be carefully graduated into its successor; and the highest possible degree of clearness and completeness of statement will be aimed at. If, then, a boy has thoroughly got up one book, he will naturally be promoted to the next book on that subject in the series; and this change will form at once a mark of past progress and an incitement to new exertion. If he has not, he must continue to work in that book until he is able to approach the following one. Thus a boy who has passed through his half-yearly course with moderate success will be presented, at the opening of a new half, with a fresh set of books; his ambition will be gratified, his merit openly acknowledged, and his curiosity incited and engaged to open the new course with eagerness and diligence.</paragraph> <paragraph> The books of this series will be written by men who not only thoroughly understand their subject, but can place it in the fullest and clearest light; can view it from every possible stand-point that <pagebreak page_no=""/> may be made available for the young intellect; can surround the subject with aptest illustration, and elucidate it by the fullest and simplest explanation; can impart freshness to old subjects, and win from the new all possible stores of interest, and, by their understanding of, and sympathy with, the wants and feelings of the young, can interest and excite them in their every-day school work.</paragraph> <paragraph> The books will, so far as is practicable, be divided into lessons; and in general, every possible arrangement will be made to save time and trouble on the part of the teacher, and misunderstanding on the part of the pupil. Each set of five lessons will be followed by a revise lesson, in which the salient points of the preceding lessons will be repeated in different language; and, as a general principle, constant reference will be made to what has preceded, while the maxim of varied repetition - repetition without monotony - will never be lost sight of.</paragraph> <paragraph> Each book will contain the largest possible collection of exercises - of the most varied character, always carefully graduated, and, in general, constructive as well as analytic. The pupil will be first led to a general statement or rule, by a few easy exercises: he will then have more difficult exercises founded upon that general statement or rule, and then exercises on the exceptions to the rule. Perfect intelligence of a theory will thus be secured by extraordinary fulness of practice - the method of nature in all intellectual procedure.</paragraph> <paragraph> The Editor and Writers of this Series are profoundly convinced that the first feeling that should be instilled into a boy is the feeling of power; and that, with this view, every subject ought to bo approached by the easiest steps and the most gradual synthesis. The natural difficulties in the way of teachers and learners are so great that they may well dispense with artificial obstacles raised by the compilers of school books. The common feeling of school boys towards their work is that of disappointment and discouragement; it ought to be one of mastery and zest. The distinctive features of these School Books will, therefore, be SHORTNESS, CLEARNESS, GRADUATION, PRACTICALITY, and CHEAPNESS.</paragraph> <paragraph> Each Work of the Series will appear in two forms—one in a stout binding, PRICE SIXPENCE; the other in extra binding, ONE SHILLING. ALEXANDER IRELAND & CO., PALL MALL COURT, MANCHESTER; AND DORSET STREET, SALISBURY SQUARE, LONDON.</paragraph> </div1> <div1 description="title_page"> <paragraph> <heading_undefined><small_caps>An Easy English Grammar for Beginners; being a Plain Doctrine of Words and Sentences.</small_caps></heading_undefined> </paragraph> <paragraph> <heading_undefined><small_caps>Book the First. Of Words and Their Changes</small_caps></heading_undefined> </paragraph> <paragraph> <small_caps>By J. M. D. Meiklejohn, M.A.</small_caps> </paragraph> <paragraph> <italic>Here a little, and theire a little.</italic> </paragraph> <paragraph> <small_caps>London: A. Ireland and Co. Dorset Street, Salisbury Square. Manchester: Pall Mall Court. 1862.</small_caps> </paragraph> </div1> <div1 description="initial quotation"> <paragraph> <quotation author="Lucretius I.">Ut puerorum aetas improvida ludificetur Labrorum tenus. LUCRETIUS I., 938.</quotation> <quotation author="Horace Sat. I.">- ut pueris olim dant crustula bland Doctores. elementa velint ut discere prima. Horace Sat. I., 1,26</quotation> </paragraph> </div1> <div1 description="preface" name="Notice to Teachers"> <paragraph> The writer of this book has put just as much into it - and no more - as can be learned by a child of average capacity, in five months. The book must be judged of as adapted or not adapted to this purpose - as equal or unequal to attaining this end. No more ought to be taught in that time. The child will have quite enough of head-labour to work through the exercises within that time; and a sufficient number of new ideas to assimilate and make part of its mental being. It is advised that the children in whose hands it is placed begin with the exercises before reading any of the text, except that small part which relates to each exercise, and that the text be used not so much to impart new ideas, as to give a clear and adequate expression to the notions the child must have obtained - if the exercises have been worked in good faith and with any thought at all.</paragraph> <paragraph> The guiding idea of the formation of these has been to give always two corresponding sets of exercises - an analytic and a synthetic. Whatever the child has to put together, he has to take to pieces again; and whatever he has taken to pieces, he once more recomposes. This plan is not followed in a dull, mechanical way; but this is the chief idea of the general scheme.</paragraph> <paragraph> No <italic>exceptional</italic> phrases, forms, or idioms have been admitted into the exercises, - so far as it was possible to keep them out without making them utterly dull. But the teacher is earnestly requested not to give the child any explanation in the meantime of what is idiomatic and exceptional, but to say at once: "I shall not answer that at present," and to keep strictly to the inculcation of what is in the book, and nothing more.</paragraph> <paragraph> It is recommended that the child be now and then allowed the assistance of his reading-book in making the sentences required in the Exercises.</paragraph> <paragraph> Many and strong objections may be made against the theory of this first part.</paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="ii"/> <paragraph> I do not assert that the system of definitions given here will enable one to parse and explain every word or idiom in the language. Such an assumption would be monstrous. In a homogeneous language, like the German, a claim of this kind might be made, and might be satisfied. But in a language that has been subjected to so many and so varying influences, it is almost impossible for even the subtlest thinker, or the most learned philologist, to construct a theory which will embrace and account for all the idiomatic expressions of the English language. Nay, it may be boldly asserted, that there is a point in the English language where all theory must break down, and where we can only say: Such and such is the usage, but we cannot explain it, or point out how it has grown up. The usual procedure of grammatical people, when they meet with an idiom which their system does not explain, is to call it "bad grammar.” They have not the courage to say the truth - to say: "We do not understand this phrase.” But this confession must now and then b6 made - even by the most learned philologist. It will be a good discipline, too, both for the teacher and the scholar - for the teacher to confess, and for the scholar to know - that this or that phrase has as yet baffled the ingenuity both of his teacher and of writers on grammar. The English language contains more difficult and inexplicable forms and phrases than either Greek or Latin - than Greek, as it is much less homogeneous; than Latin, as it is a thousand-fold more subtle and more individual. A Latin translation of Shakspere would be full of gaps and all kinds of inadequacies.</paragraph> <paragraph> It is probable that numerous objections will be raised to the accuracy of the definitions. This is not the place to defend them. One test of their truth, however, may here be offered. If these definitions account for the functions of a larger number of words than any previous definitions, they must be truer, as they are profounder and more practical. The writer is well aware of the exceptions that can be taken to them; but, in the following books of this grammar, it will be clearly shown how these rudimentary types are compelled to assume different forms to suit themselves to different conditions. Language is a living existence, and not a manufactured product. The thorough study of it is more difficult than the study of vegetable anatomy; and just as much of it, and no more, should be taught to children as is requisite for their obtaining clear ideas of words and sentences. This book differs from the books of preceding grammarians in this: That most grammarians give definitions which have no differentia, that is, which are loose and <pagebreak page_no="iii"/> inadequate, and yet compel you to bring every word in the language under one, and <italic>only one</italic>, of these definitions; while this book indicates shortly the <italic>function</italic> of a word, and shows that its name and condition, for the time being, are given by one of these categories or definitions. The old question was: “What <italic>is</italic> this or that word?” And the dispute often cost much aimless thinking and writing. The new question is, “What is it this or that word <italic>does</italic>? What is its function?” The usual procedure is to give inadequate, inconsistent, and confused definitions, and to insist that all idioms and forms of language shall be conformed to these. The case is just reversed in the present grammar. The definitions are thoroughly self-consistent and clear; but—as will be seen in the following parts—the language will not be forced to fall in to those forms. On the contrary, it will be clearly shown in what instances and for what reasons this is impossible. At the same time, these definitions and primary grammatical notions will show how far the language has fallen away from a strict logical standard.</paragraph> <paragraph> The strongest objection may perhaps be raised against the definition of a preposition. I beg the teacher to suspend his judgment in the mean time; and I am prepared to prove to him—and it will clearly appear in the subsequent parts—that this definition is the result of the most thorough and complete analysis. The cases in which verbs and adjectives exert an influence on prepositions will of course demand, in a future part, a certain modification of the original and strict demand which is made upon us <italic>always to show</italic> the nouns which a preposition connects; but as the definition gives the fundamental notion of a preposition, and as the last analysis would always show this fundamental connection, it is well to make the pupil begin with finding it in easy cases. The teacher might also call the preposition a <italic>relation-giving word</italic>.—As regards the introduction of the five cases, it is sufficient to say—that the language cannot be parsed without them.</paragraph> <paragraph> One word more: The grammatical views of the writer must not be judged by this little book; his notions on grammar are here given in their barest and most rudimentary condition. But it is true here as in so many other fields of thought—that the profoundest conceptions are also the simplest. And, in teaching, the first thing is to give the child a set of clear, strict, and self-consistent notions, to keep him to these for a very long while, —and, when these have become part of himself and his thinking powers, to let him know about exceptions and aberrations.</paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="iv"/> <paragraph> The statements in this book are not exhaustive—and are not intended to be exhaustive—about any one part of any one subject. Each of the chapters here given will be afterwards fully developed; and the consideration of idioms and anomalies will then enter. The second part of this grammar will treat chiefly about <small_caps>sentences and their organisation</small_caps>. J. M. D M. Bowden, Cheshire, Christmas 1861.</paragraph> </div1> </div0> <div0 description="main_body" name="An Easy English Grammar for Beginners"> <div1 description="main_text" name="Part I. - Of Words"> <heading level="1">PART I. - OF WORDS.</heading> <paragraph> <quotation author="Wordsworth, William"> <lg met="" rhyme=""> <l>My heart leaps up when I behold</l> <l>A rainbow in the sky.</l> </lg> </quotation> <ed_note type="addition"><reference type="quotation" author="Wordsworth, William" judgemental="0"/></ed_note> </paragraph> <paragraph> It is plain that this sentence is made up of words. Words, like workmen, are not all of the same kind; because they have not all the same kind of work to do. Some workmen are carpenters, some masons, some blacksmiths. Each word, for example, in the above sentence is of a different kind from the others. <italic>My</italic> is a <italic>Pronoun</italic>; <italic>heart</italic> is a <italic>Noun</italic>; <italic>leaps</italic> is a <italic>Verb</italic>, and so on. These are some of the names that have been given by people to the different kinds of words.</paragraph> <paragraph> There are in our language <small_caps>seven kinds of words</small_caps>. The first kind we shall talk about is the kind called <small_caps>Nouns</small_caps>.</paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="2"/> <div2> <heading level="2">Chapter I. Nouns.</heading> <paragraph> A Noun is a Name; and <linebreak/> A Name is a Noun.</paragraph> <paragraph> The word <italic>John</italic> is a noun, because it is a name; the word <italic>London</italic> is a noun, because it is a name; the word <italic>orange</italic> is a noun, because it is a name; the word <italic>fun</italic> is a noun, because it is a name; and the word <italic>goodness</italic> is a noun, because it is a name.</paragraph> </div2> <div2> <heading level="2">Chapter II. Verbs.</heading> <paragraph>We come next to <small_caps>Verbs</small_caps>.</paragraph> <paragraph> A Verb is a Telling Word. <linebreak/> A Telling Word is a Verb.</paragraph> <paragraph> Let us take the sentence: <lg met="" rhyme=""> <l>The stream that <italic>flows</italic> out of the lake,</l> <l>As trough the glen it <italic>rambles</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Repeats</italic> a moan, o'er moss and stone,</l> <l>For those seven lovely Campbells.</l> </lg> </paragraph> <paragraph> In this sentence, <italic>flows</italic>, <italic>rambles</italic>, and <italic>repeats</italic>, are verbs; because they <small_caps>tell</small_caps> that the river <italic>flows</italic> and <pagebreak page_no="3"/> <italic>rambles</italic> and <italic>repeats</italic>. Again, let us take the sentence, Jack <italic>saw</italic> Tom when he <italic>ran</italic> down the road. Here <italic>saw</italic> and <italic>ran</italic>, are verbs, because <italic>saw</italic> <small_caps>tells</small_caps> something about Jack, and <italic>ran</italic> <small_caps>tells</small_caps> something about Tom.</paragraph> <paragraph> A <small_caps>word that tells</small_caps>, therefore, <small_caps>is a Verb</small_caps>; and <linebreak/> <small_caps>A Verb is a word that tells, or a Telling Word</small_caps>. </paragraph> </div2> <div2> <heading level="2">Chapter III. Adjectives.</heading> <paragraph>We come to <small_caps>Adjectives</small_caps>.</paragraph> <paragraph> An Adjective is a Noun-Marking Word. <linebreak/> A Noun-Marking word is an Adjective.</paragraph> <paragraph> </paragraph> <paragraph> Thus: "<italic>The black man sold the spotted dog to the old gentleman.</italic>" In this sentence the words <italic>black</italic>, <italic>spotted</italic>, <italic>old</italic>, and <italic>the</italic>, mark the nouns <italic>man</italic>, <italic>dog</italic>, and <italic>gentleman</italic>. <italic>Black</italic> marks the noun <italic>man</italic>, and helps me to know that man among other men; <italic>spotted</italic> marks the noun <italic>dog</italic>, and helps me to distinguish the dog we are talking of from other dogs; and <italic>old</italic> marks the noun <italic>gentleman</italic>, and helps me to mark out that gentleman from gentlemen who are young or middle-aged. The word <italic>the</italic> marks out <italic>the particular black man we are talking about</italic> from among all other <italic>black men</italic>; and so of the rest. The word <italic>the</italic> is like a ☞ on a fingerpost; <pagebreak page_no="4" /> it <italic>points out</italic> the thing that we happen to be speaking or writing about, but it has not any meaning of its own.</paragraph> <paragraph> Thus we see that the words <italic>the</italic>, <italic>black</italic>, <italic>spotted</italic>, and <italic>old</italic> mark the nouns <italic>man</italic>, <italic>dog</italic>, and <italic>gentleman</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph> They are therefore noun-marking words. But a noun-marking word is called an Adjective.</paragraph> <paragraph> We now know, therefore, that — <linebreak/> <italic>An Adjective is a marking word</italic>; and that <linebreak/> <italic>An Adjective always marks Nouns</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph> We may, therefore, say that — <linebreak/> <small_caps>An Adjective is a Noun-marking Word</small_caps>; or that <linebreak/> <small_caps>A Noun-marking Word is an Adjective</small_caps>.</paragraph> </div2> <div2> <heading level="2">Chapter IV. Adverbs.</heading> <paragraph>Next come <small_caps>Adverbs.</small_caps></paragraph> <paragraph>An Adverb is also a <italic>marking</italic> word. But it does not mark nouns. It marks only verbs, or adjectives, or other adverbs, like itself. We may therefore call an adverb a <italic>verb-marking word</italic>, or an <italic>adjective-marking word</italic>, or an <italic>adverb-marking word</italic>. For example: "The <italic>extremely</italic> black man <italic>yesterday</italic> sold <pagebreak page_no="5"/> the spotted dog to the <italic>very</italic> old gentleman." In this sentence, <italic>extremely</italic> marks <italic>black</italic>, and shows how black the man was — that is, that he was <italic>extremely</italic> black; <italic>yesterday</italic>marks <italic>sold</italic>, and shows <italic>when</italic> he sold the dog; and <italic>very</italic> marks <italic>old</italic>, and shows <italic>how</italic> old the gentleman was — that is, that he was <italic>very</italic> old. In this sentence, therefore, <italic>extremely</italic> is an <italic>adjective-marking word</italic>, and <italic>yesterday</italic> is a <italic>verb-marking word</italic>. When I say: “Tom runs very fast,” I use two adverbs, <italic>very</italic> and <italic>fast</italic>. <italic>Fast</italic> marks the verb <italic>runs</italic>, and shows <italic>how</italic> Tom runs; and <italic>very</italic> marks the adverb <italic>fast</italic>, and shows <italic>how</italic> fast the running is. <italic>Fast</italic> is therefore an adverb or <italic>verb-marking</italic> word; and <italic>very</italic> is an adverb or <italic>adverb-marking</italic> word.</paragraph> <paragraph> But, for the sake of convenience, it may be easier and become afterwards more simple, to say that — <linebreak/> <small_caps>An Adverb is a Modifying Word</small_caps>, or <linebreak/> <small_caps>A Modifying Word is an Adverb</small_caps>.</paragraph> <paragraph> The word <italic>modifying</italic> is, however, just at first a hard word to understand. Let us try to understand it by the example of a cup of coffee. Before I put either cream or sugar into the coffee, it has a rather bitter taste. When I put some sugar into it, it becomes less bitter. That is, the sugar has modified, or altered, or changed, the taste of the coffee. If I add some milk or cream, the taste is still more modified or changed or altered. Now let us take <pagebreak page_no="6"/> the sentence: "He runs." When I say <italic>He runs</italic>, I don’t tell you whether he runs <italic>fast</italic> or <italic>slow</italic>, <italic>neatly</italic> or <italic>awkwardly</italic>, <italic>here</italic> or <italic>there</italic>. But when I say <italic>He runs fast</italic>, the word <italic>fast</italic> modifies the word <italic>runs</italic>, and lets us know what kind of running he is making; and when I say <italic>He runs very fast</italic>, the word <italic>very</italic> modifies the word <italic>fast</italic>, and lets us know that the fastness of the running is very great. So that <italic>fast</italic> modifies <italic>runs</italic>; and <italic>very</italic> modifies <italic>fast</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph> Modifying words must then, we see, modify something.</paragraph> <paragraph> Modifying Words or Adverbs always modify either Verbs, or Adjectives, or other Adverbs.</paragraph> <paragraph type="example"> Here are examples of each: — <italic> (a) Tom reads well. <linebreak/> (b) The potatoes are quite cold. <linebreak/> (c) Jack walks very clumsily.</italic> </paragraph> <paragraph> In <italic>(a)</italic> the adverb well modifies the verb <italic>reads</italic>; in <italic>(b)</italic> the adverb <italic>quite</italic> modifies the adjective <italic>cold</italic>; and in <italic>(c)</italic> the adverb <italic>very</italic> modifies the adverb <italic>clumsily</italic>, which itself modifies the verb <italic>walks</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph> We have found, therefore, that an <small_caps>Adverb</small_caps> is either a — <linebreak/> (1) <small_caps>Verb-Modifying Word</small_caps>, or <linebreak/> (2) <small_caps>An Adjective-Modifying Word</small_caps>, or <linebreak/> (3) <small_caps>An Adverb-Modifying Word</small_caps>. </paragraph> </div2> <pagebreak page_no="7"/> <div2> <heading level="2">Chapter V. Prepositions.</heading> <paragraph>We now arrive at <small_caps>Prepositions</small_caps>.</paragraph> <paragraph>A Preposition is a joining word. If it is a joining word, it must join something. What, then, does it join? It joins Nouns.</paragraph> <paragraph> A Preposition is, then, a Noun-joining Word; and <linebreak/> A Noun-joining Word is a Preposition.</paragraph> <paragraph> Let us take a sentence or two: (1) "The man with the long nose is dead." Here <italic>with</italic> joins <italic>man</italic> and <italic>nose</italic>. (2) "I saw the gamekeeper <italic>with</italic> his gun in his hand." Here <italic>with</italic> joins <italic>gamekeeper</italic> and <italic>gun</italic>, while <italic>in</italic> joins <italic>gun</italic> and <italic>hand</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph> Sometimes a verb comes between the preposition and one of the nouns it connects. Thus: "Oliver is in the garden." Here <italic>in</italic> joins <italic>Oliver</italic> and <italic>garden</italic>, although the verb <italic>is</italic> comes between them. Take another sentence: "The mists sweep over the fields." Here <italic>over</italic> connects <italic>mists</italic> and <italic>fields</italic>, although the verb <italic>sweep</italic> comes between. Sometimes, too, an adjective comes between the preposition and one of the nouns it connects; but the connection between the nouns is not on that account destroyed. Take the sentence: "John is uneasy about his brother." Here <italic>about</italic> connects <italic>John</italic> and <italic>brother</italic>; although it seems to connect <pagebreak page_no="8"/> <italic>uneasy </italic>and <italic>brother</italic>. This is a very difficult case to understand; but it will be fully explained in a future part.</paragraph> <paragraph> We may also say that — <linebreak/> <small_caps>A Preposition is a Noun-connecting Word</small_caps>, or <linebreak/> <small_caps>A Noun-connecting Word is a Preposition</small_caps>. </paragraph> </div2> <div2> <heading level="2">Chapter VI. Conjunctions.</heading> <paragraph>But there is another kind of joining word, called a <small_caps>Conjunction</small_caps>.</paragraph> <paragraph> A Conjunction is a Sentence-joining Word, or <linebreak/> A Sentence-joining Word is a Conjunction.</paragraph> <paragraph> But I have a right to ask what a sentence is. Well, then, <italic>a sentence is a statement in which the sense is complete</italic>. If I say, "<italic>Tom</italic>," there is no sense in that as yet — that is, I have made no statement; but if I say, "<italic>Tom runs</italic>," the sense is complete, and I have made a statement in which there is complete sense. This definition will do for the present.</paragraph> <paragraph> Let us take the sentence: "James looked sad, <italic>and</italic> was very unhappy." Here the word <italic>and</italic> joins the sentence — "James looked sad," to the sentence <pagebreak page_no="9"/> "James was very unhappy." Or take the sentence: "The keeper will seize you, if you take that nest." Here the word <italic>if</italic> joins or connects the sentences — "The keeper will <italic>seize</italic> you," and "You <italic>take</italic> that nest." </paragraph> <paragraph> Therefore, we have found that — <linebreak/> <small_caps>A Conjunction is a Sentence-connecting Word</small_caps>, or <linebreak/> A <small_caps>Sentence-connecting Word is a Conjunction</small_caps>.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">The only word to which this definition will not apply is <italic>and</italic>. The reason for this will be afterwards given.</paragraph></footnote> </paragraph> </div2> <div2> <heading level="2">Chapter VII. Pronouns.</heading> <paragraph> We could manage to keep up any conversation, however long, or to write a book, however big, with the aid of these six kinds of words, or — as many people call them — parts of language, or parts of speech; that is, with the help only of Nouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Adjectives, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. But there is another kind of word we employ, not because we must do so, but for the sake of convenience. This kind of word is called a <small_caps>Pronoun</small_caps>.</paragraph> <paragraph> A Pronoun is a word used instead of a Noun; or <linebreak/> A Word used instead of a Noun is a Pronoun; or <linebreak/> A Pronoun is a For-name; or <linebreak/> A For-name is a Pronoun.</paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="10"/> <paragraph> For example, if I say: "Ned went to market; and, as Ned was returning home, Ned fell into a ditch. Ned would have been there who knows how long, if a man had not come up to Ned and pulled Ned out. Ned was a pretty sight; Ned was caked with mud from Ned’s cap to Ned’s boots." So many <italic>Neds</italic> are clumsy and troublesome; we therefore use the word <italic>he</italic> instead of the word <italic>Ned</italic>. But the word <italic>Ned</italic> is a noun; and a word used instead of a noun is a pronoun. But <italic>he</italic> is used instead of the <italic>noun</italic> Ned; therefore <italic>he</italic> is a pronoun.</paragraph> <paragraph> We know, therefore, that — <linebreak/> <small_caps>A Pronoun is a For-name</small_caps>; or <linebreak/> <small_caps>A For-name is a Pronoun</small_caps>.</paragraph> </div2> <div2> <heading level="2">Chapter VIII. Interjections.</heading> <paragraph> An Interjection is not properly a word. It may be a mere sound. Dogs, pigs, and other animals, use interjections. When any one treads on our toes, we say "O!" If the pain continues a long time, we may come to say "Oh! Oh!" If we are pitying anybody, we may be brought to say "Ah!" If we think very little of what a person is saying, we may feel <pagebreak page_no="11" /> ourselves called upon to say "Pooh! pooh!" or, if he persists in talking nonsense, we might venture so far as to utter "Pshaw!" But these are not <italic>words</italic>, any more than the bark of a dog, or the grunt of a pig. We sometimes, however, say "Dear me!" or you may hear silly people say "Did you ever!" or "Lawk a-daisy!" These are words, to be sure, but they are words with no sense in them; they are words used merely as <italic>sounds</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph> We find, therefore, that — <linebreak/> <small_caps>An Interjection is a Sound, or a Word used only as a Sound</small_caps>.</paragraph> </div2> <div2> <heading level="2">Chapter IX. The Seven Kinds of Words.</heading> <paragraph> We now know that — <list rend="numbered"> <label>1</label><item><small_caps>A Noun is a Name.</small_caps></item> <label>2</label><item><small_caps>A Verb is a Telling Word.</small_caps></item> <label>3</label><item><small_caps>An Adjective is a Noun-Marking Word.</small_caps></item> <label>4</label><item><small_caps>An Adverb is a Modifying Word.</small_caps></item> <label>5</label><item><small_caps>A Preposition is a Noun-Connecting Word.</small_caps></item> <label>6</label><item><small_caps>A Conjunction is a Sentence-Connecting Word.</small_caps></item> <label>7</label><item><small_caps>A Pronoun is a For-Name.</small_caps></item> </list> <folio folio_no="B"/> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="12"/> <paragraph> Or we may put these facts another way, which comes to the same thing. <small_caps>In Grammar</small_caps> — <list rend="numbered"> <label>1</label><item>A Name is called <small_caps>A Noun</small_caps>.</item> <label>2</label><item>A Telling Word is called <small_caps>A Verb</small_caps>.</item> <label>3</label><item>A Noun-marking Word is called <small_caps>An Adjective</small_caps>.</item> <label>4</label><item>A Modifying Word is called <small_caps>An Adverb</small_caps>.</item> <label>5</label><item>A Noun-connecting Word is called <small_caps>A Preposition</small_caps>.</item> <label>6</label><item>A Sentence-connecting Word is called <small_caps>A Conjunction</small_caps>.</item> <label>7</label><item>A For-name is called <small_caps>A Pronoun</small_caps>.</item> </list> </paragraph> <paragraph> We see, too, that all words fall into groups or sets.</paragraph> <paragraph> Adjectives and Prepositions are always in company with Nouns; <linebreak/> Adverbs<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">It must not be forgotten that adverbs may also go with adjectives and other adverbs. Why this is so will be afterwards explained.</paragraph></footnote> and Conjunctions are always in company with Verbs.</paragraph> <paragraph> <table cols="2" rows="2"> <row> <cell><small_caps>Adjectives : Nouns</small_caps></cell> <cell><small_caps>Adverbs : Verbs</small_caps></cell> </row> <row> <cell><small_caps>Prepositions : Nouns</small_caps></cell> <cell><small_caps>Conjunctions : Verbs</small_caps></cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> </div2> <div2> <heading level="2">Chapter X. How Words are Used.</heading> <paragraph> A man may have two or three different trades, which he carries on at the same time. He may be a shoemaker, and have a grocer’s shop, and at the same <pagebreak page_no="13"/> time be a pew-opener on Sundays. When he is making shoes, he is a shoemaker; when he is selling sugar, he is a grocer; and when he is taking charge of the church or chapel, he is a pew-opener.</paragraph> <paragraph> In the same way, a word may be of two or three or four kinds. That is, it may belong to two or three or four different classes. That is to say, a word is not always a verb, or <italic>always</italic> a noun, or <italic>always</italic> an adjective.</paragraph> <paragraph> For example, the word round may be — <list rend="numbered"> <label>1</label><item>A Noun, or</item> <label>2</label><item>An Adjective, or</item> <label>3</label><item>A Verb, or</item> <label>4</label><item>A Preposition.</item> </list> </paragraph> <paragraph>In the sentence, "What a big round of beef," it is a <italic>Noun</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph>In the sentence, "He showed me a round cheese," it is an <italic>Adjective</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph>In the sentence, "Tom Jones rounded the point in his boat," it is a <italic>Verb</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph>In the sentence, "Captain Cook sailed round the world," it is a <italic>Preposition</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph> To find out what a word is, we must therefore <italic>not</italic> look at the word itself, but consider what the word is <italic>doing</italic>, or what <small_caps>use</small_caps> is made of the word.</paragraph> <paragraph> Thus in (1), <italic>round</italic> is <italic>used</italic> as a name; in (2) it is <italic>used</italic> as a marking-word — to mark out the cheese shown to me from other cheeses; in (3) it is <italic>used</italic> as a telling-word — to tell something about Tom Jones; <pagebreak page_no="14" /> and in (4) it is <italic>used</italic> as a preposition or noun-connecting word, to connect the nouns <italic>Cook</italic> and <italic>world</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph> Now all <italic>thinking</italic> is simply asking oneself questions. When I ask myself questions I am thinking; when I leave off asking myself questions I leave off thinking.</paragraph> <paragraph> If, therefore, I want to find out what kind of word this or that word is, I have only to ask myself the following questions, till I get hold of the right answer: — <list rend="numbered"> <label>1</label><item>Is this word <italic>used</italic> as a <small_caps>name</small_caps>? <linebreak/> If it is, then it is a Name or Noun.</item> <label>2</label><item>Is this word <italic>used</italic> as a <small_caps>telling-word</small_caps>? <linebreak/> If it is, then it is a Telling-word or Verb.</item> <label>3</label><item>Is this word <italic>used</italic> as a <small_caps>noun-marking word</small_caps>? <linebreak/> If it is, then it is a Noun-marking word or Adjective.</item> <label>4</label><item>Is this word <italic>used</italic> as a <small_caps>modifying-word</small_caps>? <linebreak/> If it is, then it is a Modifying-word or Adverb.</item> <label>5</label><item>Is this word <italic>used</italic> as a <small_caps>noun-connecting word</small_caps>? <linebreak/> If it is, then it is a Noun-connecting word or Preposition.</item> <label>6</label><item>Is this word <italic>used</italic> as a <small_caps>sentence-connecting word</small_caps>? <linebreak/> If it is, then it is a Sentence-connecting word or Conjunction.</item> <label>7</label><item>Is this word <italic>used</italic> instead of a <small_caps>noun</small_caps>? <linebreak/> If it is, then it is a For-noun or Pronoun.</item> </list> </paragraph> </div2> <div2> <heading level="2">Chapter XII. How Words Go with Each Other.<ed_note type="note">There is no chapter XI in part 1</ed_note></heading> <paragraph>From what we have already found out, it is quite plain that — </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="15"/> <paragraph>1. A <italic>Noun</italic> or <italic>Pronoun</italic> will not make sense without a <italic>Verb</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph>Thus "John"—is not sense. <linebreak/> Thus "He" —is not sense.</paragraph> <paragraph>But "John walks" or "He walks" is sense.</paragraph> <paragraph>2. A <italic>Verb</italic> will not make sense without a <italic>Noun</italic> or <italic>Pronoun</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph>Thus — "Runs" is not sense. But "Tom runs" or "He runs" is sense.</paragraph> <paragraph>3. An <italic>Adjective</italic> cannot stand by itself, but must always be joined to a <italic>Noun</italic>, expressed or understood.</paragraph> <paragraph>It is true we have such sentences as: "The good are generally loved" and "The bad ought to be punished." But the <italic>full</italic> phrase would be "The good men and women," "The bad men and women." So that we see that the adjectives "good" and "bad" mark the nouns "men" and "women," although these words are not expressed, but only understood.</paragraph> <paragraph>4. An <italic>Adverb</italic> cannot stand by itself, but must always be joined to a <italic>Verb</italic>, or an <italic>Adjective</italic>, or an <italic>Adverb</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph>Thus we cannot say "He is very;" but "He is very good." It is nonsense to say "He beautifully;" but it is sense to say "He plays beautifully." It is absurd to say "He writes extremely;" but it is sense to say "He writes extremely well."</paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="16"/> <paragraph>A <italic>Preposition</italic> cannot stand by itself, but must always be found between a <italic>Noun</italic> and a <italic>Noun</italic>, or a <italic>Noun</italic> and a <italic>Pronoun</italic>, or a <italic>Pronoun</italic> and a <italic>Noun</italic>, or a <italic>Pronoun</italic> and a <italic>Pronoun</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph>Thus we cannot say: "John was with;" but we must say "John was with his brother," or some such noun. In this sentence <italic>with</italic> joins the two nouns <italic>John</italic> and <italic>brother</italic>. We can also say: — <list rend="numbered"> <label>1</label><item>John was with him.</item> <label>2</label><item>He was with James.</item> <label>3</label><item>He was with them.</item> </list> </paragraph> <paragraph>In (1) the preposition <italic>with</italic> joins a noun and a pronoun; in (2) it joins a pronoun and a noun; in (3) it joins a pronoun and a pronoun.</paragraph> <paragraph>6. A <italic>Conjunction</italic> cannot stand by itself but must always be found between a <italic>Verb expressed</italic> and a <italic>Verb understood</italic>, or between a <italic>Verb understood</italic> and a <italic>Verb expressed</italic>, or between a <italic>Verb expressed</italic> and another <italic>Verb expressed</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph>Thus we cannot say: "He will come, if;" but we must say something like this: "He will come, if I tell him." Here the conjunction <italic>if</italic> joins the sentence "He will come" to the sentence "I tell him." Take the sentences: <list rend="numbered"> <label>1</label><item>John went home, but not James.</item> <label>2</label><item>John and James went home.</item> <label>3</label><item>John went home, but James refused.</item> </list> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="17"/> <paragraph>In (1) the conjunction <italic>but</italic> joins the sentence "John went" to the sentence "James went not." The verb <italic>went</italic> is <italic>understood</italic> in the latter sentence. In (2) the conjunction <italic>and</italic> joins the sentence "John went" to the sentence "James went." The <italic>verb</italic> went is <italic>understood</italic> in the first sentence. In (3) the conjunction <italic>but</italic> joins the sentence "John went" to the sentence "James refused." In both these sentences the <italic>verbs are expressed</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph> ☞ The reason why a conjunction is found only between verbs is the following: — A <italic>verb</italic> is the chief word in a sentence, because a verb is a telling-word. If there were no telling-word in a sentence, there would be nothing told — there would be no statement, and therefore no sentence. As a verb, then, is the chief word in a sentence, the conjunction may be said to join verbs, as well as sentences; or, we may say that — </paragraph> <paragraph> <small_caps> A Conjunction is a Verb-connecting Word</small_caps>; or <linebreak/> <small_caps>A Verb-connecting Word is a Conjunction</small_caps>. </paragraph> </div2> </div1> <div1 description="main_text" name="Part II. Of the Changes in Words"> <heading level="1">PART II. - OF THE CHANGES IN WORDS.</heading> <paragraph> Words are not always the same; they undergo changes in their spelling. Thus <italic>horse</italic> becomes <italic>horses</italic>, when I want to talk about more than one horse; man becomes <italic>men</italic>, when I want to speak about more than one man. When a word is changed, it is said to be <italic>inflected</italic>; and the change itself is called an <italic>inflection</italic>. It is the <italic>endings</italic> of words that are usually changed. When a boy puts on a new pair of boots or a new cap, he may be said to be inflected or changed as to his endings or extremities, like boy, boy<italic>s</italic>; when he enters on a new jacket, he is inflected centrally, that is, in the middle, like goose, <italic>geese</italic>. The kinds of words that can be changed or inflected are — 1. The Noun. 2. The Pronoun. 3. The Adjective. 4. The Verb. 5. The Adverb. The Preposition and the Conjunction are <italic>never</italic> changed or inflected.</paragraph> <div2> <heading level="2">Chapter I. Changes or Inflections in Nouns.</heading> <heading level="3">Number.</heading> <paragraph>If I am speaking about one boy, I say boy; if I am speaking about two, I say <italic>boys</italic>.</paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="19"/> <paragraph><italic>Boy</italic> is then said to be in the <italic>Singular Number</italic>. <italic>Boys</italic> is said to be in the <italic>Plural Number</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph> <list rend="numbered"> <label>1</label><item>In most nouns, the plural is made by adding <italic>s</italic> to the singular. As book, books.</item> <label>2</label><item>In nouns which end in <italic>s</italic>, <italic>sh</italic>, <italic>ch</italic>, <italic>x</italic>, or <italic>o</italic>, we add <italic>es</italic> to the singular. As box, boxes.</item> <label>3</label><item>In nouns which end in <italic>y</italic>, <italic>with a consonant before it</italic>, we change <italic>y</italic> into <italic>ies</italic>. As lady, ladies. <linebreak/> ☞ If a vowel comes before the <italic>y</italic>, we don't change the <italic>y</italic>, but only add <italic>s</italic>. As toy, toys.</item> <label>4</label><item>Nouns that end in <italic>f</italic> or <italic>fe</italic> generally take <italic>ves</italic> in the plural. As calf, calves; knife, knives.</item> <label>5</label><item>Many nouns make the plural by changing the vowel that is in the singular. As man, men. Here <italic>a</italic> is changed into <italic>e</italic>.</item> <label>6</label><item>A very few nouns make the plural by adding <italic>en</italic> to the singular. As ox, oxen.</item> <label>7</label><item>Some words have their plural like their singular. As one sheep, ten sheep.</item> </list> </paragraph> <heading level="3">Case.</heading> <paragraph>When a person is very ill, we may say, "He is in a sad case" or "a sad condition;" when he has done something far from right, we may say, "He is in a bad case" or "a bad condition." Therefore the word <pagebreak page_no="20"/> <italic>case</italic> means <italic>condition</italic>. Nouns can be in cases or conditions; just like people.</paragraph> <paragraph> Nouns can be in five cases or conditions: — <list rend="numbered"> <label>1.</label><item>The Nominative or Named Case.</item> <label>2.</label><item><ed_note type="addition">The</ed_note> Dative <ed_note type="addition">or</ed_note> Given-to, or Done-for Case.</item> <label>3.</label><item><ed_note type="addition">The</ed_note><ed_note type="addition">or</ed_note></item> <label>4.</label><item><ed_note type="addition">The</ed_note> Objective <ed_note type="addition">or</ed_note> Done-to Case.</item> <label>5.</label><item><ed_note type="addition">The</ed_note>Vocative <ed_note type="addition">or</ed_note> Spoken-to Case</item> </list> Or, </paragraph> <paragraph> <list rend="simple"> <item>The <italic>Named case</italic> of a noun is called the <italic>Nominative case</italic>.</item> <item><ed_note type="addition">The</ed_note> <italic>Possessing case</italic> <ed_note type="addition">of a noun is called</ed_note> Possessive case.</item> <item><ed_note type="addition">The</ed_note> <italic>Given-to or Done-for case</italic> <ed_note type="addition">of a noun is called</ed_note> Dative case.</item> <item><ed_note type="addition">The</ed_note> <italic>Done-to case</italic> <ed_note type="addition">of a noun is called</ed_note> <italic>Objective case</italic>.</item> <item><ed_note type="addition">The</ed_note> <italic>Spoken-to case </italic><ed_note type="addition">of a noun is called</ed_note> <italic>Vocative case</italic>.</item> </list> </paragraph> <paragraph> In the sentence, "John is sick," <italic>John</italic> is in the Nominative case. <linebreak/> In the sentence, "John’s hat is lost," <italic>John's</italic> is in the Possessive case. <linebreak/> In the sentence, "He gave John a book," <italic>John</italic> is in the Dative or Given-to case. <linebreak/> In the sentence, "He made John a ship," <italic>John</italic> is in the Dative or Done-for case. <linebreak/> In the sentence, "He struck John," <italic>John</italic> is in the Objective case. <linebreak/> In the sentence, "John, come here," <italic>John</italic> is in the Vocative case.</paragraph> <paragraph> Many hundred years ago, our forefathers made a change in the ending of every noun or pronoun, <pagebreak page_no="21"/> according to whether it stood in one or other of these cases. <italic>Now</italic>, the only change that is made is for the <italic>possessive case</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph> 1. The Possessive is written, in the Singular, by adding an apostrophe and <italic>s</italic>. Boy, boy's.</paragraph> <paragraph> 2. The Possessive is written, in the Plural, by adding an apostrophe Boys, boys'. But, when the plural does <italic>not</italic> end in <italic>s</italic>, we must write <italic>both</italic> an apostrophe and an <italic>s</italic>. As Men, men's.</paragraph> <paragraph> ☞ The Possessive case is now kept chiefly for nouns which are the names of living beings, and is not used for the names of things. We do not often now hear such expressions as <italic>the house's roof</italic> or <italic>the box's lid</italic>. Therefore we must carefully notice that — The names of things have seldom any inflection at all for <italic>case</italic>.</paragraph> <heading level="3">Gender.</heading> <paragraph> <list rend="numbered"> <label>1.</label><item>The names of male animals are said to be <italic>masculine</italic>. As Horse, King, Uncle.</item> <label>2.</label><item>The names of female animals are said to be <italic>feminine</italic>. As Mare, Queen, Aunt.</item> <label>3.</label><item>The names of things without life are said to be <italic>neither</italic> or <italic>neuter</italic>. As Stable, Throne, Shilling. <linebreak/> When we call them <italic>neither</italic>, we mean <italic>neither masculine</italic> nor <italic>feminine</italic>.</item> <label>4.</label><item>The names of living creatures that may be either masculine or feminine are said to be <italic>common</italic> or <pagebreak page_no="22"/> <italic>either</italic>; that is, <italic>either masculine or feminine</italic>. As Cousin, Bird, Parent.</item> </list> </paragraph> <paragraph> There are therefore two genders: <list rend="numbered"> <label>1.</label><item>Masculine</item> <label>2.</label><item>Feminine.</item> </list> <italic> Neither of the two</italic> is called Neuter or Neither. <linebreak/> <italic>Either of the two</italic> is called Common or Either.</paragraph> <paragraph> When we want to change a masculine noun into the corresponding feminine, we may do one of four things: <list rend="numbered"> <label>1.</label><item>We may add <italic>ess</italic>, as Shepherd, Shepherdess. <footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">This addition sometimes also requires a change in the spelling of the original noun: as <italic>Actor</italic>, <italic>Actress</italic>; <italic>Emperor</italic>, <italic>Empress</italic>.</paragraph></footnote></item> <label>2.</label><item>We may add <italic>ine</italic>, as Hero, Heroine.</item> <label>3.</label><item>We may use a different word, as Father, Mother.</item> <label>4.</label><item>We may prefix the word <italic>she</italic>, as Goat, She-goat.</item> </list> </paragraph> </div2> <div2> <heading level="2">Chapter II. Changes in the Pronoun.</heading> <paragraph>The Pronoun, like the noun, is changed or inflected for Number, Case, and Gender.</paragraph> <heading level="3">Number.</heading> <paragraph> <list rend="simple"> <item>I has in the plural We</item> <item>Thou <ed_note type="addition">has in the plural</ed_note> You [or Ye]</item> <item>He <ed_note type="addition">has in the plural</ed_note> They.</item> <item>She <ed_note type="addition">has in the plural</ed_note> They.</item> <item>It <ed_note type="addition">has in the plural</ed_note> They.</item> </list> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="23"/> <heading level="3">Case.</heading> <paragraph> <list rend="simple"> <item>I has My or Mine in the Possessive Case</item> <item>Thou <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> Thy or Thine <ed_note type="addition">in the Possessive Case.</ed_note></item> <item>He <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> His <ed_note type="addition">in the Possessive Case.</ed_note></item> <item>She <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> Her or Hers <ed_note type="addition">in the Possessive Case.</ed_note></item> <item>It <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> Its <ed_note type="addition">in the Possessive Case.</ed_note></item> <item>We <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> Our or Ours <ed_note type="addition">in the Possessive Case.</ed_note></item> <item>You <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> Your or Yours <ed_note type="addition">in the Possessive Case.</ed_note></item> <item>Thou <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> Their or Theirs <ed_note type="addition">in the Possessive Case.</ed_note></item> </list> </paragraph> <paragraph> <list rend="simple"> <item>I has Me in the Dative Case</item> <item>Thou <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> Thee <ed_note type="addition">in the Dative Case.</ed_note></item> <item>He <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> Him <ed_note type="addition">in the Dative Case.</ed_note></item> <item>She <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> Her <ed_note type="addition">in the Dative Case.</ed_note></item> <item>It <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> It <ed_note type="addition">in the Dative Case.</ed_note></item> <item>We <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> Us <ed_note type="addition">in the Dative Case.</ed_note></item> <item>You <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> You <ed_note type="addition">in the Dative Case.</ed_note></item> <item>Thou <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> Them <ed_note type="addition">in the Dative Case.</ed_note></item> </list> </paragraph> <paragraph> <list rend="simple"> <item>I has Me in the Objective Case</item> <item>Thou <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> Thee <ed_note type="addition">in the Objective Case.</ed_note></item> <item>He <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> Him <ed_note type="addition">in the Objective Case.</ed_note></item> <item>She <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> Her <ed_note type="addition">in the Objective Case.</ed_note></item> <item>It <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> It <ed_note type="addition">in the Objective Case.</ed_note></item> <item>We <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> Us <ed_note type="addition">in the Objective Case.</ed_note></item> <item>You <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> You <ed_note type="addition">in the Objective Case.</ed_note></item> <item>Thou <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> Them <ed_note type="addition">in the Objective Case.</ed_note></item> </list> </paragraph> <paragraph>☞ The Dative and Objective Cases are exactly alike. Formerly, they were different; but people <pagebreak page_no="24"/> began to use the dative case as an objective, and they have kept the habit up to this time.</paragraph> <paragraph> The pronoun I cannot have a Vocative or Called-to Case, because I don't need to call to myself. <linebreak/> Thou has Thou in Vocative Case. <linebreak/> You <ed_note type="addition">has</ed_note> You <ed_note type="addition">in the Vocative Case.</ed_note> <linebreak/> <italic>He</italic>, <italic>She</italic>, <italic>It</italic>, and <italic>They</italic>, cannot have a Vocative case, because they are always used when we speak <italic>of</italic> people and things, and not when we speak <italic>to</italic> them.</paragraph> <heading level="3">Gender.</heading> <paragraph><italic>I</italic> and <italic>Thou</italic> have not a Feminine or Neuter Gender. <italic>He</italic> has <italic>She</italic> in the Feminine and <italic>It</italic> in the Neuter.</paragraph> <paragraph>There is another pronoun, which is called the Relative Pronoun. When, for example, we say, "I know the man who sells fowls," the word <italic>who</italic> is said to stand for the noun <italic>man</italic>, and is therefore a <italic>pronoun</italic>. But it also <italic>relates</italic> to man, and therefore it is called a <italic>relative</italic> or relating pronoun. It would be better to call it a <italic>conjunctive</italic> or <italic>joining</italic> pronoun, because it joins the sentence "I know the man" and the sentence "who sells fowls."</paragraph> <heading level="3">Gender of Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns.</heading> <paragraph> Who is masculine or feminine. It has another form — <italic>which</italic>. The form <italic>which</italic> is either masculine or feminine or neuter; but it is used only when we are <pagebreak page_no="25"/> speaking about irrational animals (all animals except men and women) and things.</paragraph> <paragraph><italic>That</italic> is also sometimes a relative pronoun, and can be used at any time instead of <italic>who</italic> or <italic>which</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph>This pronoun is not changed or inflected for anything but case. Thus — <table cols="2" rows="6"> <row role="heading"> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Case</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Pronoun</ed_note></cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Nominative</cell> <cell>Who</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Possessive</cell> <cell>Whose</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Dative</cell> <cell>(Wanting<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">You can say, "I gave <italic>him</italic> the book," but you cannot say "The boy, <italic>whom</italic> I gave the book, is sick."</paragraph></footnote>)</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Objective</cell> <cell>Whom</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Vocative</cell> <cell>(Wanting)</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> </div2> <div2> <heading level="2">Chapter III. Changes or Inflections in the Adjective.</heading> <paragraph> Let us take four pieces of paper. I can say: This one is <italic>white</italic>, that is <italic>whiter</italic>, the other is the <italic>whitest</italic>, and the fourth is only <italic>whitish</italic>. <list rend="numbered"> <label>1.</label><item>The word <italic>white</italic> is said to be in the <italic>positive</italic> degree; because the paper is said to be <italic>positively</italic> white.</item> <label>2.</label><item>The word <italic>whiter</italic> is said to be in the <italic>comparative</italic> degree; because the one piece of paper has been <italic>compared</italic> with the other.</item> <pagebreak page_no="26"/> <label>3.</label><item>The word <italic>whitest</italic> is said to be in the <italic>superlative</italic> degree; because the paper is whiter than all other paper compared with it, and <italic>superlative</italic> means <italic>highest of all</italic>.</item> <label>4.</label><item>The word <italic>whitish</italic> is said to be in the <italic>sub-positive</italic> degree; because it is <italic>under the positive</italic>. <italic>Sub</italic> means <italic>under</italic>.</item> </list> </paragraph> <paragraph> The word degree means step. There are therefore four degrees or steps — one down, two up, and one on the ground-level. Thus — <table cols="4" rows="2"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Sub-positive</cell> <cell><bold>Positive</bold></cell> <cell>Comparative</cell> <cell>Superlative</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Whitish</cell> <cell><bold>White</bold></cell> <cell>Whiter</cell> <cell>Whitest</cell> </row> </table> <graphic page="26" image_id="0" url="images/0_0.jpg" desc="Steigerungsformen" filetype="jpg"/> </paragraph> <paragraph> The Comparative degree is formed by adding r or er. The Superlative degree is formed by adding st or est. The Sub-positive degree is formed by adding ish. Very few adjectives take the sub-positive degree.</paragraph> <paragraph> ☞ <small_caps>But</small_caps>, when a word has two, or more than two, syllables <linebreak/> The Comparative is generally formed by prefixing the adverb <italic>more</italic>. <pagebreak page_no="27"/> The Superlative is generally formed by prefixing the adverb <italic>most</italic>. <linebreak/> The Sub-positive is generally formed by prefixing the adverb <italic>rather</italic>. <linebreak/> As Splendid, more splendid, most splendid.</paragraph> <paragraph> Some adjectives are compared in an irregular manner. Here are a few: — <table cols="3" rows="8"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Positive</cell> <cell>Comparative</cell> <cell>Superlative</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Good</cell> <cell>Better</cell> <cell>Best</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Bad</cell> <cell>Worse</cell> <cell>Worst</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Evil</cell> <cell>Worse</cell> <cell>Worst</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Ill</cell> <cell>Worse</cell> <cell>Worst</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Little</cell> <cell>Less</cell> <cell>Least</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Much</cell> <cell>More</cell> <cell>Most</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Many</cell> <cell>More</cell> <cell>Most</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> </div2> <div2> <heading level="2">Chapter IV. Changes or Inflections in the Verb</heading> <heading level="3">Time or Tense</heading> <paragraph> Let us take the verb <italic>walk</italic>. When we want to join <italic>walk</italic> to the pronoun <italic>I</italic> in the <italic>present</italic> time or tense, we say "I walk;" if in the <italic>past</italic> time or tense, we say, "I walked." </paragraph> <paragraph> We see from this that verbs are changed or inflected for <italic>time</italic>; and that to turn a verb into past time we have only to add <italic>ed</italic>.</paragraph> <folio folio_no="C"/> <paragraph> Many verbs are, however, changed or inflected for time centrally — that is, in the middle. As <italic>present</italic>, "I write," <italic>past</italic>, "I wrote." </paragraph> <paragraph> The following are a few of the verbs that are changed centrally for time or tense: — <table cols="2" rows="7"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Present</cell> <cell>Past</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Think</cell> <cell>Thought</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Make</cell> <cell>Made</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Know</cell> <cell>Knew</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Do</cell> <cell>Did</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Have</cell> <cell>Had</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Blow</cell> <cell>Blew</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph> Many hundred years ago, all verbs were inflected centrally; but, when the language came to be <italic>printed</italic>, the form of inflecting for past time by adding <italic>ed</italic>, became more usual.</paragraph> <heading level="3">Person and Number.</heading> <paragraph> It is plain that the pronouns or fornames <italic>I</italic>, <italic>thou</italic>, <italic>he</italic>, <italic>she</italic>, <italic>it</italic>, <italic>we</italic>, <italic>you</italic>, and <italic>they</italic>, stand for the names of <italic>persons</italic>. In order to distinguish, in <italic>grammar</italic>, these pronouns from each other, different names have been given to them.</paragraph> <paragraph> <italic>I</italic> and <italic>we</italic> are called pronouns of the <italic>first</italic> or <italic>speaking person</italic>. <linebreak/> <italic>Thou</italic> and <italic>you</italic> are called pronouns of the <italic>second</italic> or <italic>spoken-to person</italic>. <linebreak/> <italic>He</italic>, <italic>she</italic>, <italic>it</italic>, and <italic>they</italic> are called pronouns of the <italic>third</italic> or <italic>spoken-of person</italic>. <linebreak/> <italic>We</italic> is properly not a pronoun of the first person; it is properly a mixed person. It is not = <italic>I</italic> and <italic>I</italic>; but <pagebreak page_no="29"/> it is = <italic>I</italic> and <italic>You</italic>, or <italic>I</italic> and <italic>He</italic>. <italic>You</italic> is = <italic>Thou</italic> and <italic>Thou</italic>, or <italic>Thou</italic> and <italic>He</italic>. <italic>They</italic> is = <italic>He</italic> and <italic>He</italic>, or <italic>She</italic> and <italic>She</italic>, or <italic>It</italic> and <italic>It</italic> — and so on. These different pronouns demand, then, different forms of the verb to go with them. We cannot say <italic>I walks</italic>, or <italic>They walkest</italic>. Again, we cannot say <italic>They walks</italic>, because then we should have a pronoun in the plural number going with a verb in the singular number — which would never do.</paragraph> <paragraph> If the pronoun is Singular, the verb must be Singular. If the pronoun is Plural, the verb must be Plural. If the pronoun is of the First Person, the verb must be of the First Person — and so on.</paragraph> <paragraph> That is to say, a form of the verb that usually goes with a pronoun of the second or third person, must not be put with a pronoun of first person. This is all that is meant.</paragraph> <paragraph> <list rend="simple"> <item>When I join <italic>walk</italic> to <italic>I</italic>, I say, <italic>I walk</italic>.</item> <item>When I join <italic>walk</italic> to <italic>Thou</italic>, I say, <italic>Thou walkest</italic>.</item> <item>When I join <italic>walk</italic> to <italic>He</italic>, I say, <italic>He walks</italic>.</item> <item>When I join <italic>walk</italic> to <italic>We</italic>, I say, <italic>We walk</italic>.</item> <item>When I join <italic>walk</italic> to <italic>You</italic>, I say, <italic>You walk</italic>.</item> <item>When I join <italic>walk</italic> to <italic>They</italic>, I say, <italic>They walked</italic>.</item> <item>When I join <italic>walked</italic> to <italic>I</italic>, I say, <italic>I walked</italic>.</item> <item>When I join <italic>walked</italic> to <italic>Thou</italic>, I say, <italic>Thou walkedst</italic>.</item> <item>When I join <italic>walked</italic> to <italic>He</italic>, I say, <italic>He walked</italic>.</item> <pagebreak page_no="30"/> <item>When I join <italic>walked</italic> to <italic>We</italic>, I say, <italic>We walked</italic>.</item> <item>When I join <italic>walked</italic> to <italic>You</italic>, I say, <italic>You walked</italic>.</item> <item>When I join <italic>walked</italic> to <italic>They</italic>, I say, <italic>They walked</italic>.</item> </list> You can do the same with <italic>write</italic> and <italic>wrote</italic>, or any other verb.</paragraph> <paragraph> There is, however, one verb, which is more changed or inflected than any other; and that verb is the verb which is more used than any other — the verb <small_caps>Be</small_caps>. We must therefore get it up thoroughly: </paragraph> <heading level="3">Asserting Form</heading> <paragraph> <table cols="2" rows="4"> <head>Present Time or Tense</head> <row role="heading"> <cell>Singular Number</cell> <cell>Plural Number</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>1. I am</cell> <cell>1. We are</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>2. Thou art</cell> <cell>2. You are</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>3. He is</cell> <cell>3. They are</cell> </row> </table> <table cols="2" rows="4"> <head>Past Time or Tense</head> <row role="heading"> <cell>Singular Number</cell> <cell>Plural Number</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>1. I was</cell> <cell>1. We were</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>2. Thou wast</cell> <cell>2. You were</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>3. He was</cell> <cell>3. They were</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <heading level="3">Conjunctive Form.</heading> <paragraph> <table cols="2" rows="4"> <head>Present Time or Tense</head> <row role="heading"> <cell>Singular Number</cell> <cell>Plural Number</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>(Though) 1. I be</cell> <cell>(Though) 1. We be</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>(Though) 2. Thou be</cell> <cell>(Though) 2. You be</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>(Though) 3. He be</cell> <cell>(Though) 3. They be</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph> <table cols="2" rows="4"> <head>Past Time or Tense</head> <row role="heading"> <cell>Singular Number</cell> <cell>Plural Number</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>(Though) 1. I were</cell> <cell>(Though) 1. We were</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>(Though) 2. Thou wert</cell> <cell>(Though) 2. You were</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>(Though) 3. He were</cell> <cell>(Though) 3. They were</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <heading level="3">Commanding Form.</heading> <paragraph> Be! </paragraph> <heading level="3">Adjectival or Participial Form.</heading> <paragraph> <table cols="2" rows="2"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Present</cell> <cell>Past</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Being</cell> <cell>Been</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> </div2> <div2> <heading level="2">Chapter V. Changes or Inflections in Adverbs.</heading> <paragraph> Adverbs, like adjectives, are changed or inflected for degree.</paragraph> <paragraph> 1. We form the Comparative by adding <italic>er</italic>. We form the Superlative by adding <italic>est</italic>. As, Fast, faster, fastest.</paragraph> <paragraph> 2. In some adverbs of two, or more than two, syllables, we prefix for the Comparative <italic>more</italic>, and we prefix for the Superlative <italic>most</italic>. As, Gaily, more gaily, most gaily.</paragraph> <paragraph> ☞ The Sub-positive is not generally used in Adverbs.</paragraph> </div2> </div1> <div1 description="exercises"> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 1. — Write out twelve <italic>Names</italic> of things in the school-room.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> </paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 2. — Write out twelve <italic>Names</italic> of things in the play-ground.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 3. — Write out twelve <italic>Names</italic> of things in the fields.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 4. — Select and write out the <italic>Nouns</italic> in the following sentences: — <linebreak/> 1. The pig grunts. 2. The wind blows. 3. John rode to town. 4. The seal basks in the sun. 5. The fox crept along the wall. 6. The sailor laid down his oar. 7. The steeple totters. 8. Loud cracks the whip. 9. The huntsman shot a hare. 10. The door is open. 11. The springs bubble up. 12. Lucy stood at her door.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 5. — Select and write out, in columns, the <italic>Telling Words</italic> in the following sentences: — <linebreak/> 1. The fishes sport. 2. The sexton walked. 3. Sugar melts. 4. Horsemen ride. 5. The church bell tolls. 6. The gamekeeper shoots. 7. The lark sings. 8. Steam engines work. 9. The saw cuts. 10. An arrow kills. 11. Mushrooms grow. 12. Carts rattle.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 6. — Write out, in separate columns, the <italic>Nouns</italic> and <italic>Verbs</italic> in the following: — <linebreak/> 1. England and Scotland form one island. 2. We make gas from coal. 3. I met a little cottage girl. 4. How many sticks go to the building of a crow’s nest? 5. Cromwell was the Protector of England. 6. A black man has woolly hair. 7. China gives us silk. 8. Ferns as tall as palm trees once grew in England. 9. Icebergs sometimes dash ships in pieces. 10. The English work very hard. 11. Negroes eat the flesh of snakes and vipers.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>7. — Make twelve sentences, each containing one <italic>Noun</italic> and one <italic>Verb.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 8. — Write, in columns, the <italic>Nouns</italic> in the following sentences: — <italic>Africa, gorilla</italic>, <italic>ostrich</italic>,<italic> monkey, whale, William, </italic> <pagebreak page_no="33"/> <italic>Garibaldi, harts, thirst, glow, wren, Tom,</italic> and, opposite them, the <italic>Telling Words</italic> which tell something about them. 1. Africa abounds in buffaloes. 2. The gorilla was shot by Mr. Du Chaillu. 3. The ostrich can kick like a mule. 4. The monkey sleeps in a tree. 5. The whale spouts water. 6. William invaded England. 7. Garibaldi, the true and modest patriot, lives in Caprera. 8. Harts swim very well. 9 The thirst for vengeance glared in his eyes. 10. The glow from the flames lighted up the hall. 11. The wren makes its nest of moss and grass. 12. Tom frightened the fox.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 9. — Write out, in separate columns, the <italic>Nouns</italic>and <italic>Verbs</italic> in the following: — <linebreak/> 1. The bear went across the field. 2. Go up the mountain. 2. There are partridges and woodcocks in our field. 4. The dog saved many lives. 5. Robin Hood was a robber. 6. The goats mounted the hill. 7. A storm arose in the Atlantic. 8. Jack Horner sat in a corner. 9. The crew perished at sea 10. The leopard jumped on the servant. 11. John wants to be a ploughboy. 12. The boy ran to the village shop. 13. Chimney sweepers dance merrily on May-day.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 10. — Write out, in columns, the <italic>Noun-marking Words</italic> in the following sentences, and place opposite them the <italic>Nouns</italic> they mark: — <linebreak/> 1. Bold Robin Hood was an archer good, as e’er drew bow in the merry green wood. 2. The talkative parrot whistled a merry tune. 3. Bruin, the clumsy bear, went across the fields, to seek the crafty fox. 4. There are no large birds of prey in Great Britain, except eagles and hawks. 5. The poor children wandered up and down in the dark wood. 6. A hungry wolf stood at the door of a house. 7. The angry nurse threatened to put the crying child to bed. 8. A tremendous gale blew the stout ship on shore. 9. The blind seal found its way to the cruel farmer’s door. 10. The bubbling spring comes up beside the cottage window. 11. Margaret, the milkman’s daughter, is a good and useful little girl. 12. The village children played at the merry games of leap-frog, and ball, and puss in the comer. 13. Little Two-shoes sat, like a busy little puss, in a corner, reading a book.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 11. — Add <italic>Adjectives</italic>, or <italic>Noun-marking Words,</italic> to the following <italic>Nouns</italic> :— <linebreak/> <italic>Terrier, room, rat, prisoner, penny</italic>, <italic>paper, ink, child, fire, spider, whale, elephant.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 12. — What <italic>Nouns</italic> would the following <italic>Adjectives</italic>suitably mark: — <linebreak/> <italic>Long, round, flat, sweet, rough, gentle, cruel,deep, green, pretty, kind, square.</italic></paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="34"/> <paragraph type="exercise"><italic><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 13. — Make twelve sentences, each containing a Noun, a Verb, and an Adjective, about the following: — Waggon, cat, traveller, rabbit, brother, negro, swan, field, child, fish, dog, duckling.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 14. — Write out, in separate columns, the <italic>Nouns, Verbs,</italic> and <italic>Adjectives</italic> in the following; and arrange the <italic>Adjectives</italic> opposite the <italic>Nouns</italic> they <italic>mark,</italic> and the <italic>Verbs</italic> opposite the <italic>Nouns</italic> they <italic>tell</italic> about: — <linebreak/> 1. Little puss sat in a dark corner. 2. Hark! how the strong winds blow. 3. The strong horse fell on the slippery ice. 4. The angry nurse beat the squalling child. 5. The golden eagle is a large bird. 6. The common seal has a beau- tiful dark eye. 7. The gruff billy-goat went up the steep mountain. 8. The green parrot talks cleverly. 9. I heard the dogs howl in the dark, wet night. 10. The greedy wolf wanted to eat the poor child. 11. After mince-pies and plum pudding come black draughts. 12. The poor boy went through the dark forest. 13. The cruel farmer put out the seal’s eyes. 14. The speckled hen, black and white, looked like a widow in half mourning.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 15. — Add <italic>Telling Words</italic> to the following <italic>Nouns</italic>: — <linebreak/> <italic>Hawk, battle, horse, river, bird, cage, cuckoo, snow, tree, gardener, owl, cook.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 16. — Place suitable <italic>Nouns</italic> before the following <italic>Telling Words: </italic>— R<italic>un, creep, cut, see, jump, write, roll, flow, devour, attach, shoot</italic>, <italic>grind.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 17. — Select the <italic>Nouns</italic> and <italic>Verbs</italic> from the following list, and join them so as to make sense: — <linebreak/> <italic>Fast, horse, weasel, croak, sit, boy, river, pick, tear, stand, maiden, sow</italic>, <italic>rat, wide, rich, raven, think, run, hen, gnaw, bite, overflow, tall, tailor, captain, wonderful, mind.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 18. — Make twelve sentences, each containing a <italic>Noun,</italic> an <italic>Adjective,</italic> and a <italic>Verb.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 19. — Write out, in columns, the <italic>Verb-modifying Words</italic> in the following sentences, and, opposite them, the <italic>Verbs</italic> they modify: — <linebreak/> 1. The man drove fast. 2. The hyena howled fiercely. 8. The train ran quickly down the incline. 4. The clock soon stopped. 5. Meg Muggins quickly picked up her basket. 6. Robinson kindly invited Friday to dinner. 7. The swan flew swiftly over the lake. 8. The little boy skates well. 9. The miners shouted vehemently to the man at the windlass. 10. The gorilla was mortally wounded. 11. The dog shook the rat fiercely. 12. The lads behaved awkwardly at the party.</paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="35"/> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 20. — Write out, in columns, the <italic>Adjective-modifying Words</italic> in the following sentences, and, opposite them, the <italic>Adjectives</italic> they modify: — <linebreak/> 1. Poor Tom is very cold. 2. The ostrich is a remarkably swift runner. 3. The Marquis of Westminster is extremely rich. 4. Too early rising is not good for the health. 5. I am truly glad to see that yon are well. 6. This cheese is quite green. 7. Dodd staid out a very long time skating, and his mother became exceedingly uneasy about him. 8. Dan is a really clever fellow. 9. The fox, soon weary with the run, was caught and despatched by the hounds. 10. The ugly duckling was too young to understand the world. 11. My dog is rather lame. 12. The rats thought the honey awfully nice.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 21. — Write out, in columns, the <italic>Adverb-modifying Words</italic> in the following sentences, and, opposite them, the <italic>Ad- verbs</italic> they modify: — <linebreak/> 1. Mr. Dobbs spoke very slowly. 2. Arthur did not like the sousing, and the medicine still less. 3. John returned almost directly. 4. Deerfoot ran exceedingly fast over the course. 5. They danced quite merrily through the room. 6. The time passed too quickly. 7. He visited the house rather often. 8. The glow of the sun-set was seen no longer. 9. He is almost always ill. 10. They ride extremely well. 11. We can jump much further than you. 12. The pony gallops twice faster than the cob.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 22. — Write out, in columns, the <italic>Adverbs</italic> in the following sentences, and place opposite them the <italic>Verbs, Ad- jectives,</italic> or <italic>Adverbs</italic> which they modify: — <linebreak/> 1. Fairy rings are very beautiful. 2. The two ships' companies drifted away into the frozen seas. 8. The aloe blooms only once every hundred years. 4. The Warrior sails very fast. 5. Now, the south wind softly blows. 6. How many sticks will it take to reach the moon? 7. One, if it be long enough. 8. Whalemen often see polar bears daily, nay, sometimes hourly. 9. Sir William Armstrong says that his brass guns will never wear out. 10. Are you quite well, John? 11. Jemmy Wright shaves as well as any man in England — almost, not quite. 23. — Make twelve sentences, each with a <italic>Noun,</italic> a <italic>Verb</italic>, and an <italic>Adverb.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 24. — Make twelve sentences, each with a <italic>Noun,</italic>an <italic>Adjective,</italic> a <italic>Verb,</italic> and an <italic>Adverb.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 25. — Add suitable <italic>Adverbs</italic> to the following <italic>Adjectives</italic>: — <pagebreak page_no="36"/> <italic>Dark, tall, easy, clever, clear, hard, able, glad, wonderful, slow, willing, long, steady.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 26. — Put suitable <italic>Adverbs</italic> to the following <italic>Verbs</italic>:<italic>Jump</italic>, <italic>reach</italic>, <italic>run</italic>, <italic>look</italic>, <italic>write</italic>, <italic>walk</italic>, <italic>eat</italic>, <italic>play, hunt, dance</italic>, <italic>see</italic>,<italic>sit.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 27. — Write out, in columns, the <italic>Adverbs</italic> in the following sentences, and, opposite them, the <italic>Verbs, Adjectives,</italic>or <italic>Adverbs</italic> which they modify: — <linebreak/> 1. The sailor mounted instantly to see the light. 2. The poor lion gradually declined, and soon died. 8. The steeple is scarcely three hundred feet high. 4. It is very pleasant in the cool shade. 5. The elephant can draw logs quite easily which twenty men could not move. 6. On the mountain, the snow falls so thickly that one soon gets blinded. 7. Where did you get that very beautiful ship? 8. The dikes, in Holland, have been almost all carried away by the very high floods. 9. The ship was nearly ashore when the sailor mounted the shrouds. 10. The boy cried out, "I am quite right, it is a turkey's egg." 11. Said Bruin, slyly, "Help me at once to some of that honey, and I will be your slave for ever." "Indeed,” said the fox, sneeringly.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 28. — Make twelve sentences, containing the following <italic>Adverbs: </italic>— <italic>Scarcely, lately, quickly, very, disgracefully, sadly, soon, too,</italic> <italic>quite, nearly, seldom, clumsily</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 29. — Write out, in separate columns, the <italic>Adverbs </italic>which modify (1) <italic>Verbs,</italic> those which modify (2) <italic>Adjectives,</italic> and those which modify (3) <italic>Adverbs,</italic> in the following: — <linebreak/> 1. The ship sailed very swiftly to the Polar Seas in quest of whales. 2. Bruin, the clumsily shaped bear, sent for Reynard, the too cunning fox, to come and hunt. 3. The sportsman leapt quickly from the tree, ran rapidly across the valley, and soon gained the wood. 4. The surly lion scratched the poor child very dreadfully with his paw. 5. Reynard the fox came trotting up, with his tail still more draggled than before. 6. Three billy-goats again went up the mountain, to make themselves fat. 7. A goat had a pretty kid, which she loved too dearly. 8. A most tremendous gale blew the ship on shore. 9. The bubbling spring still comes up beside the cottage window. 10. She walked too quickly to the farm- house, and consequently caught cold. 11. James Watt made a very great improvement upon the steam engine. 12. Griper, the blind man’s dog, was very savage; he often attacked little children.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 30. — Write out, in separate columns, the <italic>Nouns, Adjectives</italic>, <italic>Verbs,</italic> and <italic>Adverbs</italic> in following:— <pagebreak page_no="37"/> 1. Once on a time a beautiful seal lived in a farmer's house in Ireland. 2. Away went Bruin the bear after the cunning fox. 3. The parrot whistled shrilly, "I'm afloat, I'm afloat, and the rover is free." 4. Merrily, merrily goes the bark, before the gale she bounds. 5. The children's feet pattered slowly over the icy road. 6. Huge trees, of wonderful form, stand far out in the deep water. 7. The real name of little Goody Two-shoes was Margery Meanwell. 8. Far, far away, there is a fine country, full of rocky mountains and crystal caves. 9. The crows thought it was a dangerous thing — a very dangerous thing indeed. 10. There once lived in a farm yard, an old cock, whose name was Crowell. 11. Farmer Meanwell had quite an extensive farm, and good wheat fields, and immensely large flocks of sheep. 12. Poor Tommy, little Margery's brother, had, indeed, two shoes, but Margery had but one.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 31. — Make twelve sentences, four with <italic>Adverbs </italic>modifying <italic>Verbs</italic>, four with <italic>Adverbs</italic> modifying <italic>Adjectives</italic>, and four with <italic>Adverbs</italic> modifying <italic>Adverbs</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 32. — Fill up the spaces with <italic>Adverbs:</italic> — 1. They sailed <gap/> to the Polar Seas. 2. The sailor went aloft <gap/> to see the light. 3. The steeple is <gap/> three hundred feet high. 4. Two goats had <gap/> fed together, in a meadow. 5. The ships <gap/> met again. 6. A goat had a pretty kid, which she loved <gap/>. 7. <gap/> upon a time a s wallow flew down upon a sheep's back. 8. "Dear mother," said a little fish, "pray is that <gap/> a fly?" 9. The bird was <gap/> as pretty as Poll, nay, prettier. 10. There was <gap/> a boy who had a dog called Griper. 11. The crows thought it a dangerous thing, a <gap/> dangerous thing. 12. The children's feet pattered <gap/> over the icy road.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 33. — Select the <italic>Noun-connecting Words</italic> from the following sentences: — <linebreak/> 1. The woodman carried the axe on his shoulder. 2. Mrs. Styles travelled with twelve trunks. 3. The poor woman in the cottage was dangerously ill. 4. Robert leapt into the river. 5. The bell-man spread the news over the town. 6. The man with the wooden leg is a sailor. 7. He is going to cut up his leg into lucifer matches, and buy a cork one. 8. The tiger tears the deer with its strong, sharp claws. 9. Silk is the web of a caterpillar. 10. Amsterdam stands on wooden piles. 11. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank! 12. I saw Jones with his cousin.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 34. — Connect the following <italic>Nouns</italic> and <italic>Pronouns </italic>by suitable <italic>Noun-connecting Words: —</italic> <pagebreak page_no="38"/> 1. The cook went <gap/> the kitchen. 2. Three goats climbed <gap/> the mountain's side. 3. <gap/> a barn he used to frolic, long time ago. 4. A sportsman and his son were <gap/> the country, shooting. 5. Lucy burst <gap/> a flood of tears. 6. The sportsman went <gap/> me, to teach me to shoot. 7. The poor creatures ran up <gap/> us crying. 8. The lion-killer walked <gap/> me as far as the waterfall. 9. A man went, one day, <gap/> the house of a rich squire. 10. The servants all laughed <gap/> him. 11. A swallow flew down <gap/> a sheep's back, to steal some wool. 12. The fisherman put the perch <gap/> his basket, and walked away. 13. "Somebody has been sitting <gap/> my chair," said the great bear.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 35. — Write, in columns, the <italic>Prepositions</italic>, with the <italic>Nouns</italic> and <italic>Pronouns</italic> they connect, in Exercise 34.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 36. — <lg met="" rhyme=""> <l>In the moonlight the sheperds,</l> <l>Soft-lulled by the rills,</l> <l>Lie wrapt in their blankets,</l> <l>Asleep on the hills.</l> </lg> In the above sentence, the noun <italic>sheperds</italic> is connected with <italic>moonlight</italic> by the preposition <italic>in</italic>, with <italic>rills</italic> by the preposition <italic>by</italic>, with <italic>blankets</italic> by <italic>in</italic>, and <italic>hills</italic> by <italic>on</italic>. Thus: — <table cols="3" rows="5"> <row role="heading"> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Shepherds</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Preposition</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Noun</ed_note></cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell><small_caps>Shepherds</small_caps></cell> <cell>in</cell> <cell>moonlight</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell><ed_note type="addition" ><small_caps>Shepherds</small_caps></ed_note></cell> <cell>by</cell> <cell>rillst</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell><ed_note type="addition" ><small_caps>Shepherds</small_caps></ed_note></cell> <cell>in</cell> <cell>blankets</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell><ed_note type="addition" ><small_caps>Shepherds</small_caps></ed_note></cell> <cell>on</cell> <cell>hills</cell> </row> </table> <graphic image_id="1" url="images/0_1.jpg" desc="Exercise 36. Prepositions with Sheperds" filetype="jpg"/> Show the connection between the different Nouns in the same way, in the following sentences: — <linebreak/> 1. The steam-engine at the Mint is set a-going at nine o'clock. 2. Some fishes travel by land from one place to another. 3. In a little paddock some horses are playing at follow-my-leader. 4. Camels walk through the heavy sands in the deserts of Arabia. 5. Night, with her cold fingers, sprinkles moonbeams on the sea-waste. 6. A captain bold, of Halifax, who lived in country quarters — (Is this a sentence, or complete statement?) 7. At Woolwich, the several parts of a wheel are put together with one squeeze. 8. My coat is all in tatters, and my hat — is at the hatter's. 9. The man with the cocked hat stood on a tub, speaking to the noisy crowd. 10. In the reign of Henry II., from Temple Bar to the village of Westminster was a country road. 11. The cart, with the Red King's body in it, rattled through the New Forest. 12. The cock and the hen came originally from the east. 19. The negroes in many parts of the island of Jamaica are lazy.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 37. — Make twelve sentences, each containing one <italic>Preposition.</italic> </paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>38. — Arrange the <italic>Prepositions</italic> in the following sentences in four columns — putting in the first column those which join a <italic>Noun</italic> and a <italic>Noun</italic>, in the second those which join a <italic>Noun</italic> and a <italic>Pronoun</italic>, in the third those which join a <italic>Pronoun</italic> and a <italic>Noun</italic>, and in the fourth those which join a <italic>Pronoun</italic> and a <italic>Pronoun</italic>: — <linebreak/> 1. He came to me. 2. The vessel sailed to the polar seas. 3. Bruin the bear sent for me. 4. The sportsman leapt from the tree, ran across the valley, and into the wood. 5. They ran up to us all in tears. 6. It scratched the poor child with its paws. 7. Reynard the fox trotted up to her, with his tail lifted on high. 8. Three billy-goats went up a mountain's side. 9. I ran to him with my clothes all in tatters. 10. She walked to the farm-house with her cloak over her arm. 11. The lion stalked towards him, snarling fearfully. 12. The canary flew to the little girl, and began to eat out of her hand.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>39. — Make twelve sentences, each with a <italic>Pre- position</italic> connecting a <italic>Noun</italic> and a <italic>Noun</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>40. — Make twelve sentences, each with a <italic>Pre- position</italic> connecting a <italic>Noun</italic> and a <italic>Pronoun.</italic> </paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>41. — Make twelve sentences, each with a <italic>Pre- position</italic> connecting a <italic>Pronoun</italic> and a <italic>Noun.</italic> </paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>42. — Make twelve sentences, each with a <italic>Pre- position</italic> connecting a <italic>Pronoun</italic> and a <italic>Pronoun.</italic> </paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>43. — Write out, in columns, the <italic>Prepositions</italic> in the following, and place on each side of them the words they connect: — <linebreak/> 1. Wolves were on their track, and almost dashed against the door of the carriage. 2. Robin Hood was born in the reign of Henry II., at Locksley, in the county of Nottingham. 3. One morning, away went Brain the bear across the fields, in quest of Reynard the fox. 4. Up the airy mountain, down the rushy glen, we daren't go a hunting, for fear of little men. 5. The sailors went trooping after each other in Indian file, with heavy loads on their backs. 6. According to promise the man came in the evening. 7. There are several hares and pheasants in that coppice. 8. The captain, amidst the hurry and confusion of the scene, preserved his calmness. 9. There are no large birds of prey in this country except the eagle and a few kinds of birds of the hawk tribe. 10. Far up the Great St. Bernard, one of those high mountains of the Alps, stands a famous convent.</paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="40"/> <paragraph type="exercise"> <italic><small_caps>EXERCISE</small_caps> 44. — Make sentences with the following Pre- positions in them: —Of, with, in, on, at, about, under, over, by, into, without, above.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>45. — Make sentences with the following <italic>Pre- positions</italic> in them: — <italic>Across, against, along, around, before, behind, down, except, upon, below, beneath, besides</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>46. — Select <italic>Conjunctions</italic> from the following: — <linebreak/> 1. The stag is found in France, and so is the wolf 2. The snipe is a small bird, but flies quickly. 3. Notwithstanding the ice, the whalers attacked and killed the seals. 4. Although the birds of Australia have beautiful plumage, they have very dis- cordant voices. 5. Gentle earthquakes often occur in England, but are oftener felt at Comrie, in Scotland. 6. The failure of the wine crop is a disastrous event, for the farmers depend upon it for a living. 7. When we see animals change their colours in the winter, we must believe that the alteration is best for them. 8. Willows are weak, but they bind other wood. 9. Although Columbus really discovered America, yet it was known to the Northmen some hundreds of years before. 10. London to-day is taller by some fifteen feet than the London of the Romans was.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>47. — Arrange, in separate columns, the <italic>Preposi- tions</italic> and <italic>Conjunctions</italic> in the following: — <linebreak/> 1. In winter the hare and the ptarmigan change the colour of their coats. 2. The Romans possessed Britain for more than four hundred years, but they had to leave it at last. 3. The mistletoe and holly now reign in every British house- hold, yet very little is known about the rise of their sovereignty. 3. The sloth in Ceylon moves slowly, and comes unawares upon a bird. 5. Elephants and seals are shot for the sake of their ivory. 6. There are neither snakes nor vipers in Ireland, for St. Patrick banished them all. 7. When the pools in Ceylon dry up, the chub set out on their travels in search of water. 8. The arrow rebounded from the boy's back as-if it had struck upon a rock. 9. Doctors themselves are not of more importance than nurses are. 10. <lg met="" rhyme=""><l>If the man who turnips cries</l> <l>Cry not when his father dies,</l> <l>'Tis a proof that he would rather</l> <l>Have a turnip than his father.</l></lg> 11. There are more than 80,000 pipes of wine in the London docks. 12. Lime injures the coats of the stomach when we drink the water that contains it.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>48. — Write out, in a column, the <italic>Conjunctions</italic> in the following sentences: — <pagebreak page_no="41"/> 1. I will stay at home, if you go to fish. 2. Cherry pie is very nice, and so is currant wine, but I must wear my plain brown gown, and never go too fine. 3. The wolf met the bear, and mocked him, because he always carried his head so low. 4. The wolf would have eaten the little girl up, but there were some wood-cutters hard by, so he thought better of it, and didn't. 5. Give me a cake and a pat of butter, for my granny is ill. 6. The wasp hummed his thanks, as he hummed from flower to flower. 7. The fish will not be caught, unless the nets are mended. 8. Tell the green hunts- man, if you meet him on the way, there’s game in the wind. 9. Thus wandered these poor children, till death did end their grief. 10. I will bring the man here, since you think so. 11. Robin Hood, although he was a robber, never injured poor people or women. 12. The parrot, Nina, could whistle "Hearts of oak" better than any sailor on board could.</paragraph> <paragraph> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>49. — Make twelve sentences, each containing a <italic>Conjunction.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise5</small_caps>0. — Write out, in columns, the <italic>Prepositions</italic> and <italic>Conjunctions</italic> in the following: — <linebreak/> 1. The seal delights to gambol in the water and is fond of basking in the sun. 2. This world is large, but there are others which are larger. 3. In Poland the wolves are not so big as they are in the South of Russia. 4. Both mincepies and plum pudding are good at Christmas. 5. You could see this little nut, Monkey, though your eyes were shut. 6. We should get no tin, if the Cornishmen did not dig in their mines. 7. Tar at first is dark red, but in a little time it becomes black. 8. The captain perished, but the sailors of the Lap- wing were saved. 9. You yet may see the fawn at play, the hare upon the green, but the sweet face of Lucy Grey will never more be seen.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>51. — Write out, in separate columns, the <italic>Nouns</italic>, <italic>Adjectives</italic>, <italic>Verbs</italic>, <italic>Adverbs</italic>, <italic>Prepositions</italic>, and <italic>Conjunctions</italic> in the following: — <linebreak/> A young seal once lived in the house of a farmer on the west coast of Ireland. The creature was mild and gentle, and the family loved it dearly. In summer its delight was to bask in the sun; in winter, to be before the fire, or, if it was per- mitted, to creep into a large oven in the kitchen. In spring a strange kind of disease attacked the cattle, many of which died. An old woman told the farmer that his cattle would never re- cover, unless he put out the seal's eyes and turned it adrift. The silly fellow consented to the cruel act; they carried the poor animal away and pitched it into the sea. On the eighth night <pagebreak page_no="42"/> after it had left, a tremendous gale arose in the Atlantic, and, in the pauses of the storm, the family could at times hear a low wailing noise at the door. Next morning they found the seal dead on the threshold.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>52. — Make sentences with the following <italic>Con- junctions</italic> in them: — <italic>Because, if, and, for, therefore, wherefore, although, than, though, unless.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>53. — Arrange in separate columns the <italic>Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions</italic> in the following story: —<italic> </italic>An Arab had lost his way in the desert. Two days had he wandered about without finding anything to eat; and he was now in danger of perishing of hunger. Suddenly he saw one of those pools of water at which travellers water their camels, and he ran up to it as fast as his tired limbs could carry him. What was his delight to see, lying upon the green bank of the pool, a leathern bag. He was sure that it con- tained food. He took it up, while his heart beat faster and faster with expectation. "Dates! I hope," he cried. "Nuts! I think!!" "Pearls! by the beard of the Prophet!!!" and the poor Arab sank fainting upon the sand.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>54. — Select the <italic>Pronouns</italic> from the following story: — A drop of rain, one solitary drop, fell from a cloud into the sea, and was swallowed by the enormous waste of waters in the bosom of the Atlantic. Lost in the depths of the ocean, the little drop said to itself, "Ah! what a tiny thing am I in this great world of water!" It happened that just at this moment an oyster opened its shelly mouth, and swallowed the water drop. It lay a long time in its pearly home. By degrees it ripened into a beautiful pearl. At length it was found by a diver. He was in ecstacies with its beauty, and gave it to a lady who knew him. She had it set in a bracelet; it became her magnificently; and she prized it above all her other jewels.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>55. — Make sentences with the following <italic>Pro- nouns</italic> in them: —<italic>Thou, him, her, them, it, he, she, me, we, us, thee, you, him, his, they, its.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>56. — Substitute <italic>Pronouns</italic> for some of the <italic>Nouns </italic>in the following story: — A poor labourer who grew turnips in the garden of the labourer, found among the turnips a turnip<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">For this word <italic>one</italic> must be used, which — though really a numbering ad- jective — is <italic>used</italic> as a kind of pronoun.</paragraph></footnote> of immense size. <pagebreak page_no="43" /> The labourer carried the turnip to the squire, who, as a reward for the industry of the labourer, gave the labourer two pounds. A widow in the same village, who was well-to-do in the world, but very greedy, heard of the affair, and said to the widow that it would be no bad plan to offer the gentleman the first of the widow’s sheep, for, said the widow, if the gentleman has given two pounds for a turnip, the gentleman will surely give much more for a sheep. The widow accordingly took the widow's sheep to the squire, and begged the gentleman to accept the sheep. The squire immediately saw the widow's selfishness, and refused to accept of the present. As the widow entreated the squire, the squire answered that as the widow forced the squire to accent the widow's present, the squire would give the widow something in return, which cost twice as much as the value of the widow's sheep. So the squire presented the widow with the enormous turnip.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>57. — Substitute <italic>Nouns</italic> for <italic>Pronouns</italic> in the follow- ing fable: — A wolf, roving about in search of food, passed by a door where a child was crying and its nurse chiding it. As he stood listening, he heard her tell it to leave off crying or she would throw it to him. So, thinking she would be as good as her word, he hung about the house, in expectation of a capital supper. But as evening came on, and it became quiet, he again heard her say that it was now good, and that if he came for it they would beat him to death. He, hearing this, trotted home as fast as he could.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>58. — Substitute the <italic>Nouns</italic> for which <italic>Pronouns </italic>stand in the following story: — A sailor had a parrot. To all the questions they asked it, it answered "There is no doubt about it." <footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">The pronoun <italic>it</italic> stands in this sentence for some such noun as <italic>"the fact."</italic></paragraph></footnote> One day he took it to the market to sell it, and fixed the price at twenty pounds. A woman asked the parrot if it was worth twenty pounds? It replied, "There is no doubt about it." She, delighted with the bird, bought it, and carried it home. Some time after she repented of her bargain, and said aloud to herself that she was a fool for having thrown her money away! "There is no doubt about it," sang out the bird.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>59. — Substitute <italic>Pronouns</italic> for <italic>Nouns</italic> in the fol- lowing: — Long, long ago, a boy set out to see the world. The boy wanted very much to see the world. So the boy left home and walked on till the boy met a woman. The woman asked the <folio folio_no="D"/> <pagebreak page_no="44"/> boy where the boy was going. The boy answered that the boy was going to see the world. The world is large, said the woman, but the woman will go with the boy to see the world. Well, the woman and the boy set out, and the woman and boy's way led through a dark forest. In the forest there was a gloomy den where a cruel wolf lived. The wolf came rushing out when the wolf heard the footsteps of the woman and boy, tore the woman and boy to pieces, and the cubs of the wolf devoured the woman and boy. So the woman and boy did not see the world after all.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>60. — Make the following sentences into a con- tinuous story: — <linebreak/> A bear was bred in the wilds of Siberia. The bear thought the bear would like to see the world. So the bear travelled from forest to forest, and from one country to another. One day the bear came by chance into a farmer's yard. The bear saw a hen drinking by the side of a pool. At every sip the hen turned up the head of the hen to the sky. The bear asked the hen the reason. The hen told the bear that turning up the head to the sky was the way of the hen for returning thanks to heaven. Here the bear burst into a fit of laughter. The bear mocked the hen. At this the cock, with the cock's wonted boldness, chided the bear thus: The cock thinks the bear a fool for laughing at the hen. The hen shows the hen's piety in that way. The bear should not be rude and mock the hen. The hen and the cock both request the bear to go away quietly.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>61. — Parse the words in the following story, according to the following model: — <linebreak/> <table cols="2" rows="10"> <row> <cell>John</cell> <cell>a noun, because it is a name.</cell> </row> <row> <cell>went</cell> <cell>a verb, because it is a telling word, and tells some- thing about <italic>John</italic>.</cell> </row> <row> <cell>to</cell> <cell>a preposition, because it connects the nouns <italic>John</italic> and <italic>town</italic>.</cell> </row> <row> <cell>the</cell> <cell>an adjective, because it is a marking word, and marks <italic>town</italic>.</cell> </row> <row> <cell>old</cell> <cell>an adjective, because it marks <italic>town</italic>.</cell> </row> <row> <cell>town</cell> <cell>a noun, because it is a name.</cell> </row> <row> <cell>and</cell> <cell>a conjunction, because it joins the sentences <italic>John went</italic> and <italic>John bought</italic>.</cell> </row> <row> <cell>bought</cell> <cell>a verb, because it is a telling word, and tells some- thing about <italic>John.</italic> </cell> </row> <row> <cell>two</cell> <cell>an adjective, because it marks the noun <italic>rabbits</italic>.</cell> </row> <row> <cell>rabbits</cell> <cell>a noun, because it is a name.</cell> </row> </table> A donkey, a dog, a cat, and a cock were once travelling together. When it became dark, they saw a light in a cottage <pagebreak page_no="45"/> some distance off. So they made their way up to it, looked throngh the window, and saw several robbers sitting at table. Well, they laid a plan to secure all the victuals to themselves. The donkey put his forefeet on the window sill, the dog mounted on his back, on his shoulders sprang the cat, and the cock flew on the cat's head. Then the ass brayed and the dog barked, the cat mewed and the cock crowed "cock-a-doodle- doo." All this so frightened the robbers that they rushed out of the house and ran off as hard as they could, leaving everything behind them.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>62. — Make twelve sentences, each containing the seven kinds of words.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>63. — Write out, in columns, the seven different kinds of words in the following: — In the pleasant valley of Ashton lived an old woman. She had a small, neat cottage, and not a weed was visible in her garden. She depended for support chiefly on her garden — which contained several strawberry-beds, and two small borders for flowers. The pinks and roses she made nosegays of, and sold them at Bristol. She did not send her strawberries to market, because many people came, in the summer-time, from Bristol, and ate strawberries and cream in her little garden.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>64. — Make twelve sentences, each containing the seven kinds of words.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>65. — State in which of the following sentences the following words are <italic>Nouns</italic>, and in which they are <italic>Adjec- tives: Round, level, good, black, white, green, living, fat: </italic>— <linebreak/> 1. The cheese is quite round. 2. The butcher sold me a large round of beef. 3. The moor is one long, dreary level. 4. The ground we play cricket on is not perfectly level. 5. Telford, the engineer, was a good and clever man. 6. It is better to do good than to wish for good. 7. President Lincoln has been much bothered about the blacks. 8. The black ox is not so large as the white one. 9. The man turned up the whites of his eyes. 10. The country is no longer green. 11. The boys play in the evening on the village-green. 12. Tom Jones finds it hard to pick up a living. 13. A living dog is sometimes not so good as a dead lion. 14. The sheep is very fat. 15. Fat is used to make candles.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>66. — State in which of the following sentences the following words are <italic>Nouns,</italic> and in which they are <italic>Verbs: Round, command, cure, breakfast, hunt, fly, bite: — </italic> 1. We can round the lake in two hours. 2. Our Christmas- -time has been one round of amusements and fun. 8. We command <pagebreak page_no="46"/> you to do this. 4. The sailor refused to obey the cap- tain’s command. 5. His cure was very slow and tedious. 6. The workmen must have breakfast before we breakfast. 7. The hunt was short and exciting. 8. We hunt every day in the season. 9. The common fly can walk on the roof. 10. Birds fly more steadily than bats. 11. The dog recovered of the bite. 12. Cats bite and scratch furiously, when irritated.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>67. — State what the following words are in each of the following sentences: <italic>Round, for, still, only, pay, race, run, people, evil, desire, fancy</italic>: — <linebreak/> 1. We will run round the ring four times. 2. I gave him sixpence for the plant. 3. I won't go, for I have been ordered to stay here. 4. Still waters run deep. 5. Johnnie is still sickly and weak. 6. Jesus stilled the waves. 7. He was the only man in the room. 8. The general has only two horses. 9. The captain offered to increase his pay. 10. The race lasted two hours. 11. The horses raced over the moor. 12. The native people of New Zealand are a long-headed race. 13. The Saxons have peopled North America. 14. The evil is done. 15. The evil deed could not remain hid. 16. I have a strong desire to go to Canada. 17. The officers desire their men to march to London. 18. The dog had a great fancy for the horse. 19. I fancy you will find him there.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>68. — State in which of the following sentences the following words are <italic>Adverbs,</italic> and in which they are <italic>Adjec- tives: Fast, quick, ill, well, little, only, worse, deep,pretty</italic>: — <linebreak/> 1. Deerfoot is a very fast runner. 2. The locomotive can run faster than the race-horse. 3. Run quick! 4. This is not a quick train. 5. The sailor was ill and in bed. 6. He has done the work ill. 7. John writes well. 8. Mary was quite well. 9. I little expected to see Smith there. 10. The horse carried the little boys safely. 11. He is an only son. 12. He gave me only ten apples. 13. The patient is worse. 14. Bob Stores rode worse than John Gilpin. 15. We must plough deep in the deep, stiff clay. 16. That is a very pretty horse. 17. It is pretty hard to climb that hill.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise69.</small_caps>— Add <italic>Verbs</italic> to the following <italic>Nouns</italic> and <italic>Pro- nouns: He, John, she, Mary, ploughman, cat, grass, they, it, we, cow, book</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>70. — Add <italic>Nouns</italic> or <italic>Pronouns</italic> to the following <italic>Verbs: Run, jump, walks, eats, finds, see, hobble, fly, tell.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>71. — Add <italic>Nouns</italic> to the following <italic>Adjectives: Green, round, square, long, lame, awkward, beautiful, nice, sweet, old </italic>.</paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="47"/> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>72. — Work the following like Exercise36: — 1. All the little birds had laid their heads under their wings, sleeping in feather beds. 2. Mr. Smith talked on that subject with Mr. Robinson in the mail train, on the way from Bristol. 3. The labourer fell with his load from the ladder, through the scaffolding, into a deep pit. 4. That host with their banners at sunset were seen. 5. The house he built is on a hill, near a wood, beside three elm trees. 6. Punch stood, in a deep study, on the stage, with his staff in his hand. 7. The swallows are in their nests with their young ones. 8. Walking up to the house, he climbed on a tree, and looked through the window, but saw no one. 9. The knight, with his vizor up, in a chain suit of mail, and with his lance in rest, rode into the lists.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>73. — Write out the following sentences, and state when the words in italics are <italic>Verbs,</italic> when <italic>Nouns,</italic> when <italic>Ad- jectives,</italic> when <italic>Prepositions,</italic> and when <italic>Conjunctions</italic>: — <linebreak/> 1. We <italic>salt</italic> fish with <italic>salt,</italic> and so make them <italic>salt.</italic> 2. Tom can <italic>jump</italic> a long <italic>jump.</italic> 3. We took a long <italic>walk.</italic> 4. The people <italic>rest</italic> on the day of <italic>rest.</italic> 5. All the sailors of the Cygnet deserted, <italic>save</italic> six. 6. God <italic>save</italic> the Queen! 7. The <italic>master</italic> was unable to <italic>master</italic> his men. 8. He <italic>works</italic> very hard at his <italic>work.</italic> 9. The government will <italic>man</italic> the navy with great care; and every <italic>man</italic> who enters will receive £6 bounty. 10. We had a long <italic>run</italic> on the beach. 11. You <italic>run</italic> faster than I. 12. What a dreadful <italic>bore</italic> Sir Peter Longjaw is! 13. The speeches <italic>bore</italic> the audience extremely.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>74. — Make sentences in which the following <italic>Adverbs</italic> will be added to <italic>Adjectives: Quite, very, remarkably, ill, worse, more, extremely, awfully, too.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>75. — Make sentences in which the following <italic>Adverbs</italic> will modify <italic>Verbs: Remarkably, worse, abominably, entirely, fully, well, ill, virtuously, mildly</italic>.<italic> </italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>76. — Make sentences in which the following <italic>Adverbs</italic> will modify <italic>Adverbs: Too, quite, still, very, almost, entirely, less, more.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>77. — State when the following words, — dear, cheap, close, hard, high, late, long, load, pretty, right, short, enough, little — are used as <italic>adjectives</italic> and when as <italic>adverbs</italic>;<italic> </italic>and, when they are ad<italic>jectives,</italic> place opposite to them, in columns, the nouns they mark, when <italic>adverbs</italic>, place opposite them the verbs or adjectives or adverbs they modify: — <linebreak/> 1. The merchant sells cloth at a very dear rate. 2. I bought my cart very cheap. 3. Don't write so close! 4. The room was ill ventilated and very close. 5. The ladies strove hard to <pagebreak page_no="48"/> ascend the hill. 6. John is a hard taskmaster. 7. It was blowing very hard that night. 8. His heart beat high to hear the news. 9 Tommie was standing on a very high wall. 10. They arrived too late even for the late train. 11. Have you waited long? 12. The procession was a mile long. 13. The boy speaks too loud. 14. We heard a loud noise from the hall. 15. That is a pretty good book. 16. The boys read pretty well. 17. He dropped right on his left hand. 18. The short man stopped short in the middle. 19. Mr. Smith knows that well enough. 20. He did not give the horse corn enough. 21. Little did he think he would ever see his little boy again.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>78. — Make twelve sentences, each with a <italic>Pre- position</italic> connecting a <italic>Noun</italic> and a <italic>Noun.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>79. — Make twelve Sentences, each with a <italic>Preposi- tion</italic> connecting a <italic>Noun</italic> and a <italic>Pronoun.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>80. — Insert fitting <italic>Prepositions</italic> in the blank spaces: — 1. This is the return he made me <gap/> my attention <gap/> his business <gap/> his severe illness. 2. I spent six months <gap/> this house <gap/> my uncle. 3. The river flows <gap/> high banks covered <gap/> flowers. 4. They fell <gap/> the river <gap/> the deepest part. 5. It happened <gap/> the ball, just as I was leaving the room <gap/> Henry. 6. I met him <gap/> the room <gap/> the dining-hall. 7. The town stands <gap/> the banks <gap/> the river Thames. 8. I gave the book <gap/> the servant <gap/> all-work. 9. The roof <gap/> the house is decayed <gap/> some places.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise81.</small_caps>— Make twelve sentences, each with a <italic>Pre- position</italic> connecting a <italic>Pronoun</italic> and a <italic>Noun.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise82.</small_caps>— Make twelve sentences, each with a <italic>Pre- position</italic> connecting a <italic>Pronoun</italic> and a <italic>Pronoun</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 83. — In the following sentences, the <italic>Conjunctions </italic>stand between <italic>Verbs expressed</italic> and <italic>Verbs understood.</italic> Write the <italic>Conjunctions</italic> and the <italic>Verbs</italic> they connect in columns:— 1. He danced, but not I. 2. They write better than we. 3. Jones rode all the way, and Smith also. 4. He thinks more about himself than about his wife. 5<italic>.</italic> The ladies left, and then the gentlemen. 6. No one grumbled but John. 7. I warned him, though too late. 8. He worked hard, though so young. 9. He is old and therefore feeble.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 84. — Make twelve sentences, each with a <italic>Con- junction</italic> connecting a <italic>Verb expressed</italic> and a <italic>Verb understood.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 85. — In the following sentences, the <italic>Conjunctions</italic> stand between a <italic>Verb understood</italic> and a <italic>Verb expressed.</italic> Write the <italic>Conjunctions</italic> and the <italic>Verbs</italic> they connect in columns: — 1. The smith and the carpenter worked in this shop. 2. Though very sick, he wrote till he could no longer hold the pen. 3. Though lame, he managed to walk very fast. 4. If dry, the hay will be all the better. 5. The captain and lieutenant remained on the ground. 6. Though rich, for our sakes he became poor. 7. If mounted, I shall be the better pleased to meet him.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 86. — Write the <italic>Plurals</italic> of: <italic>Book, stick, cow, horse</italic>, <italic>boy, bottle, field, tree, hound, weight, thing</italic>, <italic>jug.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 87. — Write the <italic>Plurals</italic> of: <italic>Box, church, switch, fox, ash, potato, ass, brush, witch, leech, hero, tax</italic>.<italic> </italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 88. — Write the <italic>Plurals</italic> of: <italic>Lady, folly, toy, duty, day, glory, delay</italic>, <italic>valley, chimney, baby, ruby, fancy.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 89. — Write the <italic>Plurals</italic> of: <italic>Calf, knife, wife, leaf, thief, dwarf, grief, sheaf, loaf, chief, shelf, wolf.</italic></paragraph><paragraph type="exercise" ><small_caps>Exercise 9</small_caps>0. — Write the <italic>Plurals</italic> of: <italic>Man, woman, goose</italic>, <italic>tooth, foot, mouse, sheep, deer, salmon, brace, score, fish, cannon.</italic></paragraph><paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>91. — Write the <italic>Plurals</italic> of: <italic>Navy</italic>, <italic>king, army, calf, man-trap, chair, moss, buffalo, sheaf, wish, chimney, body</italic>, <italic>monarch, play, ox, father-in-law, court-martial. </italic></paragraph><paragraph type="exercise" ><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 92. — Write the <italic>Plurals</italic> of: <italic>Pond, penny, mouse, muff, brother, hoof, orange, city, journey, deer, scholar, child.</italic></paragraph><paragraph type="exercise" ><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>93. — Write out the words <italic>John, Edward, Robert</italic>, <italic>Frank, and James,</italic> in the following sentences, in separate columns, as they belong to either of the five cases: — 1. John, come here. 2. I gave Frank a top. 3. Edward's cloak is lost. 4. Robert struck John. 5. How do you do, Tom? <ed_note type="addition">6.</ed_note>I will go with you, Frank, to the fair. 7. The baker handed Robert a bun. 8. Edward kicked James for drinking the cream. 9. The coachman brought Frank's brother John home. 10. James felt the ant creeping up his leg. 11. John's father made Frank a beautiful boat. 12. Robert, get Edward a few cherries. 13. John, the gamekeeper, sent Charles a brace of pheasants. 14. Robert hopes, John, that you will fetch Edward the stick with which you beat James's brother Frank last night. 15. Pluck Harry some cherries.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>94. — Make twelve sentences, with four <italic>Nouns in </italic>the <italic>Nominative</italic> case, four in the <italic>Possessive,</italic> and four in the <italic>Dative.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>95. — Make twelve sentences, with six <italic>Nouns</italic> in the <italic>Objective,</italic> and six in the <italic>Vocative.</italic></paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="50"/> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 96. — Place the <italic>Nouns</italic> in the following sentences in five different columns, for the <italic>Nominative, Possessive, Dative, Vocative</italic>, and <italic>Objective</italic> cases: — 1. I gave him the book. 2. The reading-room contains numerous maps. 3. General Baynes offered Colonel Bunch a thousand pounds. 4. Guard, please unlock this carriage. 5. I want six buns, four oranges, and two apples. 6. They went to Swan and Edgar's (What noun does the word <italic>Edgar's </italic>possess?). 7. Have you seen the servant anywhere? 8. The soldier's child is dead. 9. The king granted the duke a hundred acres of land. 10. They roasted chestnuts all the winter evening.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>97. — Make twelve sentences, with four <italic>Nomina- tive</italic> cases, four <italic>Possessive</italic>, and four <italic>Dative.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>98. — Make fifteen sentences, with three <italic>Nomi- native,</italic> three <italic>Possessive,</italic> three <italic>Dative,</italic> three <italic>Objective,</italic> and three <italic>Vocative cases.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>99. — Work this Exerciselike Exercise96: — 1. The squire gave every farmer a turkey for his Christinas dinner. 2. Robinson Crusoe found a foot-print on the shore. 3. Tommie, come and help me to carry this log. 4. The black- smith struck the carpenter with his hammer. 5. The man's patience was quite worn out. 6. I fetched him the kite from the garret where it was lying. 7. My uncle brought cousin Charles a brass spinning-top from London. 8. No eye has seen such sights. <italic>9.</italic> Farewell, dear old cottage! 10. The robin red-breast covered the children with leaves.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>100. — Make fifteen sentences, with three <italic>Nouns </italic>in the <italic>Nominative,</italic> three in the <italic>Dative,</italic> three in the <italic>Objective</italic>, three in the <italic>Vocative</italic>, and three in the <italic>Possessive case.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>101. — State the different cases in which the <italic>nouns John</italic> and <italic>gardener</italic> are in the following sentences: — 1. John gave me a nosegay. 2. Gardener, come and help me to dig up this root. 3. John's hat is missing. 4. The puppy bit the gardener severely. 5. He gave John a knife. 6. The smith made the gardener a new spade. 7. The coachman struck John with his whip. 8. I bought John a new hat. 9. The gardener's wife is sick. 10. John, go and bring me some water. 11. The gardener wants a new set of tools. 12. We gave John twenty new marbles.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>102. — Write eighteen sentences, three with a <italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Nominative,</italic> three with a <italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Possessive.</italic>three with a <italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Dative</italic> or <italic>Given-to</italic> case, three with a <pagebreak page_no="51"/> <italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Dative</italic> or <italic>Done-for Case,</italic> three with a <italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Objective,</italic> and three with a <italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Vocative</italic> case.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>103. — Write down, in five columns, the different cases in which <italic>Nouns</italic> are in the following sentences: — 1. The duke led the army in person. 2. The king's son succeeded him. 3. Richard pacified the rioters. 4. Ran as hard as you can, Tom! 5. The merchant made the king a good offer. 6. My uncle bought Tom a Christmas-tree. 7. Henry's father is now quite well. 8. The news hastened his death. 9. I shall not tell you, John.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>104. — Write ten sentences, two with a <italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Nominative,</italic> two with a <italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Possessive,</italic> two with a <italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Dative,</italic> two with a <italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Objective,</italic> and two with a <italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Vocative</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>105. — Write the <italic>Possessive</italic> of: <italic>Boy, men, boys, man, women, cat, cousin, fathers, unde, hen, brother, sister, brethren, child, mother, children, mothers, aunts, cousins</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>106. — Place, in three columns, those <italic>Possessives </italic>in the following, which are formed (i.) by an ' and <italic>s</italic> for the singular, (ii.) by an ', and (iii.) by an ' and <italic>s,</italic> for the plural: <italic>Horses', horse's, friends', women's, mothers'</italic>,<italic> priests'</italic>,<italic> friend's, Henry'</italic>s, <italic>kings', king's, brethren's</italic>, <italic>men's, man's</italic>, <italic>children's, unde's, uncles'.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>107. — Place, in separate columns, the following <italic>Nouns</italic>, according to their gender: <italic>Cousin, horse, queen, parent, shilling, mare, uncle, bird, cow, boy, book, army, town, woman, person, grocer</italic>, <italic>shoemaker, miller, spinner</italic>, <italic>impostor</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>108. — Write a list of twelve <italic>Nouns,</italic> three <italic>Mascu- line,</italic> three <italic>Feminine,</italic> three <italic>Neuter,</italic> and three <italic>Common</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>109. — Give the <italic>Feminine</italic> of: <italic>Boy, gentleman, giant, hunter, heir, he-bear, peacock, emperor, uncle, brother, mayor, peer.</italic> </paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>110. — Place, in separate columns, the following <italic>Pronouns,</italic> as they are singular or plural: <italic>We, you, thou, they, it, us, them, their, thee, him, her, thine, its. </italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 111— Write out the <italic>Possessive Singular</italic> and <italic>Plural</italic> of: <italic>Boy, ox, man, cousin, loaf, goose, tongs</italic>, <italic>echo, bottle</italic>, <italic>tooth, mouse, bride, lady</italic>, <italic>John, horse</italic>, <italic>Robert, Catherine, eagle</italic>, <italic>glass, Frank, Maria. </italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 112 — Arrange the following in columns, as they happen to be <italic>Masculine or Feminine, Neuter or Common Nouns: Bird, ant</italic>, <italic>countess, neighbour, peasant, child, cousin, infant</italic>, <italic>servant, liar</italic>, <italic>drunkard, darling, monk, singer</italic>, <italic>nun, mare, gander, lady, calf, sheep, sow, duck.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise">Exercise 113. — Place, in five separate columns, the follow- ing Pronouns, as they belong to each of the five cases: <italic>We, mine, us, me, you, them, it, they, his, her, yours, my, our, thee, him, its, theirs, ours, she, thou, your, their.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>114. — Give the <italic>Feminine</italic> of the following twelve Names: <italic>Uncle, lion, tutor, sir, peer, master, lord, duke, ram, giant, colt, father, hero.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>115. — Give the <italic>Masculine</italic> of the following twelve Names: <italic>Prophetess, tigress, bride, lass, doe, goose, hind, spawner, roe, belle, girl, queen</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>116. — Make fifteen sentences, three with <italic>you</italic> in the <italic>Nominative,</italic> three with <italic>you</italic> in the <italic>Possessive,</italic> three with <italic>you </italic>in the <italic>Dative,</italic> three with <italic>you</italic> in the <italic>Objective,</italic> and three with <italic>you</italic> in the <italic>Vocative</italic> case.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>117. — In what cases are <italic>he</italic> and <italic>you,</italic> in the following sentences: — 1. His father has sailed to the polar seas. 2. You are quite wrong. 3. Come up here, you fellows! 4. I offered him a shilling for the boat. 5. He has quite forgotten the circumstance. 6. The gardener struck him with a spade. 7. His cousins played him a trick. 8. They promised you the book. 9. We did him an injustice. 10. I saw you in the garden.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>118.—State the <italic>Genders</italic> of the <italic>Conjunctive Pro- nouns</italic> in the following sentences: <italic>— </italic> 1. Tom Jones, who drives the cart, Is dead. 2. Sally, who lives in our alley, is not well. 3. The dog that barked so loud, was shot. 4. The boys, who were skating, fell in. 5. I will shoot the first person who attempts to leave the ship. 6. The people who were with him now deserted their leader. 7. He recited to me the very words that were said. 8. The boys, whose fathers were present, were glad to see them again. 9. They killed the kittens which you saw.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>119. — Compare the following <italic>Adjectives</italic>:<italic> White, round, green, brown, black, tall,<footnote indicator="Asterisk">It is not good taste to say tallish or shortish; it is considered better to use the other form of the Sub-positive, and to say, rather tall, rather short. The same is the case with the other words marked so *.</footnote>short,* steep,* busy,* high,* great,* smooth.*</italic></paragraph> <!-- Repeating Footnotes, what to do? --> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>120. — Compare: Splendid, pleasant, magnificent, interesting, welcome, accomplished, foolish, excellent.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise 121.</small_caps>— Select the <italic>Adjectives</italic> in the <italic>Comparative</italic> <pagebreak page_no="53"/> <italic>Degree</italic> in the following sentences, and place on each side of them the two names that have been compared: — 1. John is taller than Tom. 2. I don't think we have ever seen a finer building than this church. 3. The hippopo- tamus is a fatter animal than the elephant. 4. A bloodier battle never was fought. 5. His temper is pleasanter than Tom's. 6. Ben Nevis is higher than Snowdon. 7. One good book is better than many bad books. 8. Mr. Hunt is a more skilful artist than your friend. 9. The wind was higher yesterday than to-day. (Is it the names <italic>yesterday</italic> and <italic>to-day</italic> that are here compared, or two winds?)</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise 122</small_caps>. — State when the words in the <italic>Comparative Degree</italic>, in the following sentences, are <italic>Adverbs</italic> and when <italic>Adjectives</italic>: — <linebreak/> 1. I like Tom better than his brother. 2. This flour is better than that. 3. A more beautiful building has seldom been erected. 4. The wind blew harder as night came on. 5. I dislike the place more and more. 6. There were more people in the inn than you saw. 7. He writes worse than ever. 8. This drawing is worse than your last. 9. The invalid is much better to-day. 10. He reads better than he did last half.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>123. — Write the <italic>possessive singular</italic> and <italic>possessive plural</italic> of the following <italic>Nouns; Man, horse</italic>, <italic>sheep, goat, glutton, sloth, child, woman, peasant, baby, wolf, lady, dog, monarch.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>124. — Write out the following <italic>Nouns</italic>, in four columns, — one for the <italic>masculine gender,</italic> one for the <italic>feminine, </italic>one for the <italic>neuter,</italic> and one for <italic>either gender: Book, cow, eagle, cousin, shop, man</italic>, <italic>baron, patron, ink, brother, baroness, lady, lion</italic>, <italic>apple, toy, friend</italic>, <italic>neighbour, lad, street, widow</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>125. — Write out six <italic>Nouns</italic> in the <italic>masculine gender; </italic>six in the <italic>feminine;</italic> six that are <italic>neuter;</italic> and six that are <italic>common.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>126. — Write the <italic>feminine</italic> of the following: <italic>Shep- herd, hero, father, goat, actor, emperor</italic>, <italic>brother, gentleman, lion</italic>, <italic>author, landgrave, tiger, earl, uncle, monk, he-ass, prophet, king</italic>, <italic>son, he-bear</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>127.—State the <italic>gender</italic> of the following: <italic>Duchess, nun, niece, bride</italic>, <italic>child</italic>, <italic>friend, princess, agent, sultana, giantess, duke, emperor, table, chair, daughter, aunt, hind.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>128. — Write out all the <italic>Pronouns,</italic> in their <italic>singu- lar</italic> and <italic>plural</italic> forms.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>129. — Select all the <italic>Pronouns</italic> in the <italic>possessive </italic>case from the following: — <linebreak/> <pagebreak page_no="54"/> 1. My box is quite as good as yours. 2. Our horse is in the stable. 3. Her hat is on the table. 4. This stick is not his. 5. I lived six months in their house. 6. Your plough is old and broken. 7. That book is not theirs, but ours. 8. My cottage stands near a brook. 9. His foot is rather short.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>130. — Write the <italic>Pronouns</italic> in the following sen- tences, in different columns, according as they are in the <italic>Dative</italic> or <italic>Objective</italic> case: — 1. Tom made me a little cart. 2. His uncle promised him a gold watch. 3. The blacksmith struck him on the head. 4. The cobbler told us a long story. 5. The boys love him much. 6. Her aunt showed her the workbox. 7. The fire caught her. 8. I gave them half-a-crown. 9. Send us the boots as soon as possible. 10. Our uncle will bring you a new set of books. 11. Mr. Scott Russell built him a yacht. 12. Lend us the bats and wickets. 13. Our friend saw them in the field. 14. They dragged him along. 15. The carpenter mended it very well. 16. We saw you first. 17. The joiner made us a new chair. 18. The blow injured them very much.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>131. — State whether the <italic>Pronouns</italic> in the following sentences are in the <italic>Nominative,</italic> or <italic>Vocative</italic>, or <italic>Objective</italic> cases: 1. They saw that the ship was sailing. 2. You villains! what do you mean? 3. I shall never forget the horrors of that night. 4. As we gazed where our ship had been, a blank was before us. 5. Go to the ant, thou sluggard! 6. They hoisted us on board. 7. Andrew, what say you to this? 8. We must not lose courage, but put our trust in Providence. 9. You overlooked them.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>132. — Select all the <italic>Conjunctive</italic> or <italic>Relative Pro- nouns</italic> from the following sentences: — 1. You, who saw them, can tell. 2. I am sure that you are wrong. 3. I see the golden helmet, that shines far off like flame. 4. And many more, whose names on earth are dark. (Is this a complete statement?) 5. There is a reaper, whose name is Death. (Is this a complete statement?) 6. The man whom yon saw in the field has just come into the house. 7. A strong breeze sprang up, which sent her at the rate of seven knots an hour. (To what does the word <italic>which</italic> in this sentence relate?) 8. In that case, we shall stop here; that will be better than running the risk that we ran before. (Which of the three <italic>thats</italic> in this sentence is a <italic>Relative Pronoun</italic>?) 9. The glittering summits of the iceberg were seen to bear forward, and, with a crash which could be heard by us at so great a distance, to fall prostrate in the water.</paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="55"/> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>133. — Work the following like Exercise 131: — I. He is in town. 2. I saw him. 3. His aunt gave him three shillings. 4. O Thou who dwellest in heaven! hear and aid me. 5. His horse shied, and threw him heavily on his head. 6 Our house is smaller than yours. 7. The directors have offered us the loan of their new hall. 8. We are not so stupid as you would have us appear. 9. Nothing could have given them greater pleasure.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>184. — Draw out a tabular form of the <italic>Pronouns </italic>according to the following model: — <linebreak/> <table cols="5" rows="3"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Nom.</cell> <cell>Poss.</cell> <cell>Dat.</cell> <cell>Obj.</cell> <cell>Voc.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>I</cell> <cell>My or Thine</cell> <cell>Me</cell> <cell>Me</cell> <cell>(Wanting)</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Thou</cell> <cell>Thy or Thine</cell> <cell>Thee</cell> <cell>Thee</cell> <cell>Thou</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>135. — Make three sentences containing the pro- noun <italic>who</italic>, three with the word <italic>that,</italic> three with the word <italic>which, </italic>three with <italic>whose</italic>, and three with <italic>whom</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>136. — State, in columns, in which degree the following <italic>Adjectives</italic> are: Afore, <italic>less, best, most, excellent, wider, prettier, ill, most, more, elegant</italic>, <italic>jolliest, thicker, widest</italic>.<italic> </italic></paragraph><paragraph type="exercise" ><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>137. — State to what the word <italic>who</italic> relates in the following sentences: — 1. The landlord, who had just killed the pig, locked the door. 2. The thief, who was covered with blood, was horribly frightened. 3. I saw the poor boy who was singing yesterday. 4. All the men, who knew this very well, came flocking about him. 5. Once on a time there was a woman who went out to hire a herdsman. 6. An old man in Germany had seven sons, who were each three feet and a half high. 7. Little Thumbikin, who was drowned in a pot of melted butter, was very tiny. 8. A little further on, I saw a man in a boat, who was catching eels in an odd way. 9. I am the man who is lord over this island.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 138. — Compare, that is, write out upon the four steps, <italic>Sub-Positive<footnote indicator="Asterisk">In all these cases, the form "rather rich," "rather large," must be used for the <italic>Sub-positive.</italic> </footnote>, Positive, Comparative,</italic> and <italic>Superlative</italic>, the following <italic>Adjectives</italic>:<italic> Rich, large, little, good, bad, near, gay, high, strong, sharp, ripe, late, old, far, noble, swift, brave. </italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>139. — Tell the degrees of comparison of the following <italic>Adjectives</italic>:<italic> Blackish, darkest, neater, pretty</italic>, <italic>prettiest, whitish, larger, best, clearest, fresh</italic>, <italic>broadest, flatterer, most transparent</italic>, <italic>weaker, elder, older, sunny, noisiest, more infirm, <pagebreak page_no="56"/> braver, more wonderful, healthier, yellowish, most beautiful, better, longest, most disobedient.</italic> </paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise 140.</small_caps>— Compare, that is, write out upon the four steps the following <italic>Adjectives</italic>: <italic>Hard, dear, imprudent</italic>, <italic>quick, strong, mountainous, fat, delicate, sweet, wretched, rigorous, rich, happy</italic>, <italic>clever, painful</italic>, <italic>monstrous</italic>, <italic>tempestuous, high, low</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>141. — Join the present and past tenses of <italic>think, make, know, do, have, and blow, </italic>to <italic>I, thou, he, she, it, we, you</italic>, and <italic>they.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>142. — Write out every word in the following sentences in this way: <linebreak/> <table cols="2" rows="2"> <row> <cell>He</cell> <cell>He pronoun, nominative or named case, singular number, masculine gender. This word is in the <italic>named case, </italic>because it is named for the purpose of saying <italic>jumps</italic> about it.</cell> </row> <row> <cell>jumps</cell> <cell>verb or telling word, asserted of the pronoun <italic>he, </italic>— and therefore having the form for the third person and singular number, — present time.</cell> </row> </table> 1. He jumps. 2. They sing. 3. She wrote. 4. We knew. 5. You thought. 6. I do.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>143. — To what <italic>Pronouns</italic> can the following <italic>Verbs </italic>be joined: <italic>Are, knew, runs, did, dost</italic>, <italic>walk, walks, walked, is, am, were, was. </italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>144. — Write out the <italic>Verb Be</italic> as given in the grammar.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>145. — Write about the parts of the <italic>Verb Be,</italic> in the following sentences, in this way: — <table cols="2" rows="2"> <row> <cell>Being</cell> <cell>adjectival form of verb <italic>be,</italic> marking the noun John (in Sentence 6) and in the present time.</cell> </row> <row> <cell>Are</cell> <cell>verb, asserted of the pronoun <italic>we</italic> (in Sentence 1), and, therefore, in the first person, and plural number.</cell> </row> </table> Are 1. We are. 2. He is. 3. He was. 4. Be quiet! 5. You were. 6. Being ill, John could not see me. 7. Thou art. 8. I am. 9. Being so big, Charles could not come in at the door.</paragraph> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>146. — Write out the <italic>Verbs jump</italic> and <italic>think,</italic> like the <italic>Verb Be</italic> in your grammar. <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>147. — State in what <italic>Tense</italic> the <italic>Verbs</italic> in the following sentences are: — 1. He had no thought of how strong a wind blew outside the bar. 2. We saw Tom in town. 3. They were not aware of the fact. 4. The cook makes very good mince pies, <pagebreak page_no="57"/> 5. He thinks they like plum-pudding. 6. The ladies have three boxes, four portmanteaus, eight band-boxes, two bird- cages, and a small hamper. 7. That is all. 8. I wish I were two miles hence. 9. Captain Wilkes knew very little about international law, though he had on board a great many law books.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>148. — State in what <italic>Mood</italic> the <italic>Verbs</italic> are in <small_caps>Exercise 147</small_caps>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>149. — Write out all the parts of the <italic>Verb Be </italic>that are <italic>singular,</italic> all that are <italic>plural;</italic> all that are of the <italic>first person</italic> and all that are of the <italic>second person;</italic> and all that are the same in form, with the <italic>Pronouns</italic> they may go with.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>150. — Turn all the <italic>Past Tenses</italic> in Exercise 147 into <italic>Present Tenses;</italic> and all the <italic>Present Tenses</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>151. — State when the parts of the <italic>Verb Be,</italic> in the following sentences, are in the <italic>Conjunctive form</italic>: — 1. I would run down, if he were nearer, and visit him. 2. I won’t go, unless you be there. 3. I will see him, though he be a swindler. 4. I do not think you could do it, if you were ever so tall. 5. We shall not find him at the station, unless we be in time. 6. We shall certainly bring the eatables, if we be there at all.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>152. — State what <italic>Conjunctions</italic> join the pairs of sentences in each of the above examples.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>153. — Parse the <italic>Pronouns, Conjunctions</italic>, and <italic>parts</italic> of the <italic>Verb Be</italic> in the first three examples in Exercise 151, according to the following pattern :— <linebreak/> <table cols="2" rows="4"> <row> <cell>I</cell> <cell>pronoun of the first person, singular number, in the named or nominative case.</cell> </row> <row> <cell>him</cell> <cell>pronoun of the third person, singular number, in the <italic>done-to</italic> or objective case.</cell> </row> <row> <cell>if</cell> <cell>conjunction or sentence-connecting word, connecting the sentence "I would visit him," with the sentence "he were nearer."</cell> </row> <row> <cell>were</cell> <cell>third person, singular number, past tense, conjunctive form of the <italic>verb be</italic> — of the same person and number as the word <italic>he</italic>.</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>154. — Parse the last three sentences in Exercise 151, according to the above model.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>155. — Make six pairs of sentences, joined by the <italic><italic>Conjunctions</italic> though</italic>, <italic>unless,</italic> and <italic>if.</italic></paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="58"/> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise 156.</small_caps> — Compare the Adverbs: <italic>Fast, gaily, quick, soon, sulkily, angrily, often, seldom, splendidly</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise 157.</small_caps> — Compare the following Adverbs, when they can be compared: <italic>Ill, clumsily, gaily, cheap, once, sometimes, ably, eloquently, fast, dear, likely, here, hence, why, perhaps, lately, stupidly, warmly.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise 158.</small_caps> — Make sentences, each containing one of the Adverbs in Exercise 156.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise 159.</small_caps> — Make sentences, each containing one of the Adverbs in the first half of Exercise 157.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise 160.</small_caps> — Make sentences, each containing one of the Adverbs in the last half of Exercise 157.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise 161.</small_caps> — Make sentences, each containing one of the Adverbs in Exercise 156, but in the <italic>Comparative Degree</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="exercise"> <small_caps>Exercise 162.</small_caps> — Make sentences, each containing one of the Adverbs in Exercise 156, but in the <italic>Superlative Degree</italic>.</paragraph> </div1> </div0> <div0 description="back_matter"> <div1 description="imprint"> <paragraph>A. Ireland and Co., Printers, Pall Mall Court, Market Street, Manchester.</paragraph> </div1> </div0> </grammar_text> </grammar_book>