This version (2016/01/20 09:53) was approved by Ingo Kleiber, gatherk.The Previously approved version (2015/11/16 09:07) is available.
Alexander: Young Lady and Gentleman's Guide (1833)
Last Change: 20.01.2016
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> <?xml-model href="../Schema/Schema.rng" type="application/xml" schematypens="http://relaxng.org/ns/structure/1.0"?> <grammar_book> <grammar_header> <gr_id>5</gr_id> <gr_author_id>2</gr_author_id> <gr_last_edit by="Gather, Kirsten">20.01.2016</gr_last_edit> <gr_author>Alexander, Levy</gr_author> <gr_author_gender>Male</gr_author_gender> <gr_education></gr_education> <gr_occupation></gr_occupation> <gr_title>The Young Lady and Gentleman's Guide to the Grammar of the English Language, in Verse; Adapted to the Use of Seminaries and Private Families</gr_title> <gr_short_title>Young Lady and Gentleman's Guide</gr_short_title> <gr_publisher>L. Alexander, Printer, 277, Whitechapel Road; J. Haddon, Printer, Castle-street, Finsbury</gr_publisher> <gr_place_of_publication>London</gr_place_of_publication> <gr_year_publication>1833</gr_year_publication> <gr_year_edition>1835</gr_year_edition> <gr_no_edition>2</gr_no_edition> <gr_no_of_pages>119</gr_no_of_pages> <gr_no_of_words></gr_no_of_words> <gr_language>English</gr_language> <gr_variety>British English</gr_variety> <gr_type>Teaching Grammar, Entertainment Grammar</gr_type> <gr_form>Verse</gr_form> <gr_target_audience>Other</gr_target_audience> <gr_level>Intermediate</gr_level> <gr_target_audience_author>Youth of Great Britain, Young Ladies and Gentlemen</gr_target_audience_author> </grammar_header> <grammar_text> <div0 description="front_matter"> <div1 description="title_page"> THE YOUNG LADY AND GENTLEMAN'S GUIDE TO THE GRAMMAR OF THE English Language, IN VERSE; ADAPTED TO THE USE OF SEMINARIES AND PRIVATE FAMILIES.<linebreak/> BY L. ALEXANDER, Typ. Lond. Author of the Hebrew Ritual; the Life of Benjamin Goldsmid, Esq., &c</div1> <div1 description="initial quotation">"A verse will find him who a Sermon flies."- Dr. Watts.</div1> <div1 description="imprint">LONDON: PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR; AND S0LD BY SHERWOOD, GILBERT, AND PIPER, PATERNOSTER ROW, AND ALL BOOKSELLERS. 1835.</div1> <pagebreak page_no=""/> <div1 description="imprint">J. Haddon, Printer, Castle-street, Finsbury.</div1> <pagebreak page_no=""/> <div1 description="dedication" name="To the Youth of Great Britain"> <heading level="1">TO THE YOUTH OF GREAT BRITAIN.</heading> <paragraph>Youthful Readers, In this age of improvement, I have ventured to lay a trap, in order, if possible, to attract you to the study of your mother tongue; a study the most important, and indispensable to your future respectability and usefulness in society. In the work here dedicated to you, by one who seeks your welfare, you will find both amusement and instruction. The most familiar ideas are rendered <pagebreak page_no="iv"/> into verse, and the rules of languages, where it was not practicable to reduce them to Poetry, are explained and illustrated in copious Notes.</paragraph> <paragraph> To you, on whom the future destiny of our nation so much depends, this little Work is dedicated, by Your humble servant, THE AUTHOR. </paragraph> </div1> </div0> <div0 description="main_body"> <div1 description="main_text" name="Introduction"> <heading level="1">Introduction.</heading> <paragraph><small_caps>Many</small_caps> and various have been the attempts of the learned to render the acquirement of the English language easy to youth; many Grammars have been written; much has been said on the subject; and many systems have been laid before the public, all of which possess some excellencies peculiar to the plans adopted by their respective authors. Bishop Lowth's, Dr. Priestley's, and the Rev. Mr. Lindley Murray's Grammars, have been deservedly esteemed, and much used; but those eminent men themselves, when they were instructed in Latin, learned the principal part of the language from rules composed in verse, that (because found most efficacious in fixing the rules on their memory) being the method adopted in all the Grammar schools, not only in this country, but in all the nations of Europe. And the rules in the Greek Grammar used at Westminster are also composed in verse.</paragraph> <paragraph>If, then, it be found so generally necessary and advantageous to imprint the rules of the Roman and Greek languages on the minds of youth, we are at a loss to conceive why a similar advantage might not <pagebreak page_no="vi"/> be expected to arise from adopting the same method to instil into the minds of the rising generation the grammatical principles of the English language; and the more especially when we consider that children will get in memory a hundred lines of poetry in much less time than they will be able to accomplish a fourth part of that number if written in prose. Besides, it is the practice of our most celebrated and eminent schoolmasters to furnish their pupils with pieces of poetry to get in their minds, so that they may be rehearsed at the periods of their vacations; and those who have poetical extracts.to imprint on their memories receive the task with .pleasure, and perform their duty with alacrity, while those who have extracts in prose assigned them receive the mandate with dread, and labour hard to acquit themselves with decency.</paragraph> <paragraph>Such considerations have, therefore, induced us to lay before a discerning public a Grammar of the language we now speak in the most easy, familiar, and compendious method that we could possibly contrive. Nor have we rejected the usual terms of grammar, for the sake of introducing others, but. have accommodated our language to the common appellations of noun substantive, adjective, pronoun, verb, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph>And that every part of this Guide to the Grammar of the English Language might be serviceable and instructive to young ladies and gentlemen, we have been at some pains to put all the rules into as smooth <pagebreak page_no="vii"/> and sonorous verse as the nature of the subject would allow, so that nothing might appear obscure or unintelligible; and, to throw greater light on the various parts, we have, under every rule, where it seemed necessary, added an explanation in prose by way of note, which method has been adopted by some learned grammarians on the Continent, whose grammars have met with general approbation. It must, however, be acknowledged that, from the nature of the examples, it was frequently necessary to introduce some of the verses run less harmoniously than the rest; but we believe it will be seen that the number of them is not great.</paragraph> <paragraph>In all our researches we have never met with any solid objection against this method of conveying information, for its superior excellence is evident from the very nature of the thing; and we see outlines of grammar, and explanations of some arithmetical rules and tables, exhibited on cards, which have been found useful in their way. Hence it is abundantly clear, that verse is by far more easily learned, and better retained in memory than prose; and English verse, by reason of the rhymes, yields a much greater assistance to the learner than Latin verse, because the sound of the end of one line reminds the person of a similar sound in the other of the same couplet. And we are the more fully confirmed in our opinion on this subject, by what an excellent author of good reputation has advanced concerning this mode of conveying information: "All men paid great respect <pagebreak page_no="viii"/> to the poets," says he, “who gave them so delightful an entertainment. The wiser sort took this opportunity of civilizing the rest, by putting all their theological and philosophical instructions into verse, which, being learned with pleasure and retained with ease, helped to heighten and preserve the veneration already, upon other scores, paid to the poets."</paragraph> <paragraph>By the mode here laid down, no young person will be under the necessity of burdening his memory with any thing more than is absolutely necessary to furnish him with a sufficient knowledge of the principles of his mother tongue, an acquaintance with which is so requisite in all the transactions of life.</paragraph> <paragraph>Since nothing can be more proper to acquire a just knowledge of any art or science than a clear and judicious method, we have taken particular care, in the following work, to pay strict attention to all the rules of the several parts of grammar, according to the best models. Thus, we have treated,</paragraph> <paragraph>First, of <small_caps>Orthography</small_caps>, which relates to letters, syllables, and words; showing the names, sounds, and properties of the several letters of the alphabet, their combinations into syllables, and the formation of syllables into words.</paragraph> <paragraph>Secondly, <small_caps>Etymology</small_caps>, which has relation to the several parts of speech, showing their inflections or variations; and likewise the manner in which they are derived.</paragraph> <paragraph>Thirdly, <small_caps>Syntax</small_caps>, or <small_caps>Construction</small_caps>, which is the <pagebreak page_no="ix"/> right ordering of words in a sentence, so as to render the meaning clear, distinct, and intelligible.</paragraph> <paragraph>And, fourthly, <small_caps>Prosody</small_caps>, which has regard to the accent or true pronunciation of words, and the laws of versification, all which has been attended to in a more particular manner than is to be found in any other grammar. And we may, without vanity, assert that none of the public schools in this country, and perhaps in Europe, has a course of Prosody equal to that which is here laid before the student. We have here laid down rules for marking the several accents or quantities of words, and what each sort of verse requires; but, for a fuller and more ample elucidation of this subject, we refer the student to the rules and observations which we have given in that part of our Grammar which treats of prosody.</paragraph> <paragraph>It may, however, be necessary to speak somewhat more particularly; and we must therefore observe that, in the composition of the following Grammar, as before hinted, we have paid strict attention to the terms usually given by the best and most celebrated grammarians to the different parts of speech, because we are fully convinced of the justness of the observation which has been made by some of our predecessors, that it would be a very trifling, as well as a very dangerous attempt, to teach the art of English Grammar in a new language. In treating of the conjugation of verbs, we have thought it most advisable to present the scholar with an active and a passive verb regularly conjugated, without interruption, <pagebreak page_no="x"/> through all the moods, tenses, numbers, and persons; except in the appellations of the tenses, which we have thought proper to turn into English, because it is not to be supposed, that a mere English student should fully comprehend the meaning of the terms generally employed, which are borrowed from the Latin. Thus, we have called the present tense the present time or tense; the preter-imperfect, the imperfectly past; the preterite or preter-perfect, the perfectly past; the preter-pluperfect, more than past; the future-imperfect tense we have denominated the first future, or future imperfectly past; and the future-perfect tense we have called the second future, or future perfectly past; which terms, we think there can be no doubt, will be much better understood by the mere English student than those which are derived from any foreign language.</paragraph> <paragraph>On the subject of the derivation of words, which is an essential part of Etymology, we have thought fit to be rather particular, because it is as necessary that the learner should be acquainted with the proper derivation of one word from another, as it is that he should know what part of speech it belongs to. We are aware that several plans have been laid down for pointing out the derivation of words in the English, but, notwithstanding what has been advanced on this head, we may venture to say that the method contained in the following work will be found less liable to exception than that of most other grammarians.</paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="xi"/> <paragraph>We are now to speak of Syntax, which sets before us rules for the proper disposition and right ordering of words in sentences, as we have before observed, so as to render the language clear, distinct, and perfectly intelligible to the reader; or, as it is not improperly called by some, Construction. It shows the regular connexion of the words, agreeably to nature, in the formation or construction of a sentence, which is, in general, more particularly regarded by the English, and some other modern nations, in the composition of their Grammars, than by the ancients. In short, we have endeavoured to be clear, explicit, and ample, without being intricate or tedious, "because we consider this part of Grammar not only as one of the most important, but that in which many good writers are most liable to err. We readily admit that the construction of the English language is in some measure irregular, and, consequently, not so easily reducible to rules which shall hold good in every case without exception; and this, we imagine, is one of the principal reasons which have induced some grammarians to omit it altogether. Mr. Johnson, whose Grammar was greatly esteemed at one period, has comprised it in ten or twelve lines; and Dr. Johnson, in the epitome prefixed to his English Dictionary, has spoken of it in fifteen lines only. Dr. Priestley has dispatched it in somewhat less than three pages; though he appears to have supplied that defect, in some measure, by the notes and observations which he has made at the end of his Grammar.</paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="xii"/> <paragraph><reference referenced="Lowth, Robert" judgemental="1" type="reference">Bishop Lowth</reference>, who seems to have undertaken the composition of his Grammar principally with a design to explain the rules of Syntax, has, partly in his text, but still more copiously in his notes, treated the subject in <judgement type="praise" addressee_explicit="Lowth, Robert" tedency="positive">a very clear and comprehensive manner</judgement> manner; but the Grammars of the three last eminent scholars seem better calculated for men of letters than for youth at school. The Syntax of <reference type="reference" referenced="Murray, Lindley" source="English Grammar Adapted to the Different Classes of Learners, 1795" judgemental="1">Mr. Lindley Murray</reference>'s Grammar is, however, <judgement type="acknowledgment" addressee_explicit="Murray, Lindley" tedency="positive">adapted to the service of both</judgement>.</paragraph> <paragraph>To impress the rules of Syntax more firmly in the student's memory, We have inserted a separate portion on the Grammatical Resolution of Sentences, in which the various parts of speech, and the dependance of one word upon another, are carefully explained, as well with regard to the construction as to the etymology. In this part, where any word occurs oftener than once in the same example, a reference is made to the former explanation of the same word; so that every example contains a full and distinct account of every word of which it is composed.</paragraph> <paragraph>Although we have spoken of prosody before, yet it may not be improper to observe that, while the scholar is employed in learning the rules adapted to this part, he might be exercised to advantage, by reading every day an extract from one of our best poets : indeed, it is an observation that has been frequently made, that the reading of poetry is the most effectual method of learning to read even prose with propriety and elegance.</paragraph> </div1> <pagebreak page_no=""/> <div1 description="table_of_contents" name="Contents"> <heading level="1">CONTENTS.</heading> <paragraph> <toc> <entry level="1"> <section_name>Introduction</section_name> <page_no>5</page_no> </entry> <entry level="1"> <section_name>Of Grammar in General</section_name> <page_no>15</page_no> </entry> <entry level="1"> <section_name><small_caps>Orthography</small_caps></section_name> <page_no>16</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>Of Letters</section_name> <page_no>16</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>Of Vowels</section_name> <page_no>16</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>Of Double Vowels, or Diphthongs</section_name> <page_no>18</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>Of Treble Vowels, or Triphthongs</section_name> <page_no>18</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>Of Consonants</section_name> <page_no>19</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>Of Syllables</section_name> <page_no>22</page_no> </entry> <entry level="1"> <section_name><small_caps>Etymology</small_caps></section_name> <page_no>24</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>Of the Article</section_name> <page_no>24</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>Of Nouns</section_name> <page_no>25</page_no> </entry> <entry level="3"> <section_name>Of Number</section_name> <page_no>26</page_no> </entry> <entry level="3"> <section_name>Of Case</section_name> <page_no>28</page_no> </entry> <entry level="3"> <section_name>Of Gender</section_name> <page_no>29</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>Of Adjectives</section_name> <page_no>30</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>Of Pronouns</section_name> <page_no>31</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>Of Verbs</section_name> <page_no>33</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>Adverbs</section_name> <page_no>64</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>Of Prepositions</section_name> <page_no>65</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>Of Conjunctions</section_name> <page_no>67</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>Of Interjections</section_name> <page_no>69</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>The Derivation of Words</section_name> <page_no>70</page_no> </entry> <entry level="1"> <section_name><small_caps>Syntax</small_caps></section_name> <page_no>78</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>The Construction of Articles</section_name> <page_no>78</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name><ed_note type="addition">The Counstruction of</ed_note> Nouns</section_name> <page_no>78</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name><ed_note type="addition">The Counstruction of</ed_note> Adjectives</section_name> <page_no>81</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name><ed_note type="addition">The Counstruction of</ed_note> Pronouns</section_name> <page_no>82</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name><ed_note type="addition">The Counstruction of</ed_note> Verbs</section_name> <page_no>83</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name><ed_note type="addition">The Counstruction of</ed_note> Adverbs</section_name> <page_no>84</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name><ed_note type="addition">The Counstruction of</ed_note> Prepositions</section_name> <page_no>84</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name><ed_note type="addition">The Counstruction of</ed_note> Conjunctions</section_name> <page_no>86</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name><ed_note type="addition">The Counstruction of</ed_note> Interjections</section_name> <page_no>86</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>The Grammatical Resolution of Sentences</section_name> <page_no>87</page_no> </entry> <entry level="1"> <section_name><small_caps>Prosody</small_caps>; or the True Pronunciation of Words, and the Laws of Versification</section_name> <page_no>92</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>Of Accent and Quantity</section_name> <page_no>93</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>Of Versification ; or the Laws of Poetical Composition</section_name> <page_no>99</page_no> </entry> <entry level="1"> <section_name>The Art of Pointing</section_name> <page_no>112</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name>Of the Comma</section_name> <page_no>113</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name><ed_note type="addition">Of the</ed_note> Semicolon</section_name> <page_no>115</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name><ed_note type="addition">Of the</ed_note> Colon</section_name> <page_no>115</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name><ed_note type="addition">Of the</ed_note> Period</section_name> <page_no>116</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name><ed_note type="addition">Of the</ed_note> Interrogation</section_name> <page_no>116</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name><ed_note type="addition">Of the</ed_note> Exclamation, or Admiration</section_name> <page_no>117</page_no> </entry> <entry level="2"> <section_name><ed_note type="addition">Of the</ed_note> Parenthesis</section_name> <page_no>117</page_no> </entry> <entry level="1"> <section_name>Different Characters made use of in Composition</section_name> <page_no>117</page_no> </entry> <entry level="1"> <section_name>The Use of Capital Letters</section_name> <page_no>118</page_no> </entry> <entry level="1"> <section_name>Of Paragraphs</section_name> <page_no>119</page_no> </entry> </toc> </paragraph> </div1> </div0> <pagebreak page_no=""/> <div0 description="main_body" name="An English Grammar in Verse"> <heading_undefined>AN <bold>ENGLISH GRAMMAR</bold> IN VERSE.</heading_undefined> <div1 description="main_text" name="Of Grammar in General"> <heading level="1"><small_caps>Of Grammar in General.</small_caps></heading> <paragraph> <l>Grammar doth all the art most truly teach,</l> <l>According to the use of every speech,</l> <l>How we our thoughts most justly may express,</l> <l>In words together join’d in sentences.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">Grammar, therefore, is the art of communicating our thoughts by words in the plainest and most intelligible manner, and with the strictest propriety, both in speaking and writing.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">It is called an art, because it consists of certain rules, drawn from the observations of learned men upon the works of the best authors. </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">And it is emphatically termed the art of communicating our thoughts by words, because they are other methods of conveying our ideas, such as <italic>looks</italic>, <italic>gestures</italic>, <italic>pointing</italic>, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">English Grammar is, consequently, the art of writing and speaking the English language with propriety and correctness.</paragraph> </footnote></l> <l>Into Four Parts the learn'd this art divide,</l> <l>The first, <small_caps>Orthography</small_caps>, we must decide;</l> <l>Which treats of letters, syllables, and words,</l> <l>Showing, by rules, what most with each accords:</l> <l>The second, <small_caps>Etymology</small_caps>, extends</l> <l>To parts of speech, and rules for them commends;</l> <l>Likewise of words it shows how they’re derived,</l> <l>By which the English tongue so much has thrived:</l> <l>Syntax, the third, on sentences does dwell,</l> <l>Showing how they are form'd in language well:</l> <l>The fourth, and last, is called <small_caps>Prosody</small_caps>,</l> <l>And treats of accent and of poetry.</l> </paragraph> </div1> <pagebreak page_no="16"/> <div1 description="main_text" name="Orthography"> <heading level="1">ORTHOGRAPHY.</heading> <div2> <heading level="2"><small_caps>Of Letters.</small_caps></heading> <paragraph> <l>A letter is an uncompounded sound,</l> <l>Of which there no division can be found:</l><footnote indicator="Asterisk">A letter, therefore, is a character, or mark, which denotes the various motions or positions of the instruments of speech, either in producing or terminating sounds: or, letters are marks or signs, which express the several sounds made use of in conveying our thoughts to each other in speech.</footnote> <l>These sounds to certain characters we fix,</l> <l>Which in the English tongue are twenty-six.</l> </paragraph> <heading_undefined><italic>The Alphabet.</italic></heading_undefined> <paragraph> <table cols="3" rows="27"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Roman</cell> <cell>Italic</cell> <cell>Name</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>a</cell> <cell><italic>a</italic></cell> <cell>ay</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>b</cell> <cell><italic>b</italic></cell> <cell>bee</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>c</cell> <cell><italic>c</italic></cell> <cell>cee<ed_note type="correction">jee</ed_note></cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>d</cell> <cell><italic>d</italic></cell> <cell>dee</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>e</cell> <cell><italic>e</italic></cell> <cell>ee</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>f</cell> <cell><italic>f</italic></cell> <cell>ef</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>g</cell> <cell><italic>g</italic></cell> <cell>jee</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>h</cell> <cell><italic>h</italic></cell> <cell>aitch</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>i</cell> <cell><italic>i</italic></cell> <cell>eye</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>j</cell> <cell><italic>j</italic></cell> <cell>jay</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>k</cell> <cell><italic>k</italic></cell> <cell>kay</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>l</cell> <cell><italic>l</italic></cell> <cell>el</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>m</cell> <cell><italic>m</italic></cell> <cell>em</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>n</cell> <cell><italic>n</italic></cell> <cell>en</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>o</cell> <cell><italic>o</italic></cell> <cell>o</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>p</cell> <cell><italic>p</italic></cell> <cell>pee</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>q</cell> <cell><italic>q</italic></cell> <cell>kew</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>r</cell> <cell><italic>r</italic></cell> <cell>ar</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>s</cell> <cell><italic>s</italic></cell> <cell>ess</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>t</cell> <cell><italic>t</italic></cell> <cell>tee</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>u</cell> <cell><italic>u</italic></cell> <cell>you</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>v</cell> <cell><italic>v</italic></cell> <cell>vee</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>w</cell> <cell><italic>w</italic></cell> <cell>double you</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>x</cell> <cell><italic>x</italic></cell> <cell>eks</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>y</cell> <cell><italic>y</italic></cell> <cell>wy</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>z</cell> <cell><italic>z</italic></cell> <cell>zed</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> </div2> <div2> <heading level="2"><small_caps>Of Vowels.</small_caps></heading> <paragraph> <l>Under two heads the letters must be plac'd;</l> <l>The first holds vowels, consonants the last.</l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="17"/> <paragraph> <l>A vowel by itself complete is found.</l> <l>Made in the throat, one full and perfect sound,<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">A vowel is a simple articulate sound, formed by the impulse of the voice, and by opening the mouth in a particular manner; being thereby perfectly pronounced without the aid of any other letter.</paragraph></footnote></l> <l>Five letters only we can vowels call,</l> <l>For <italic>a</italic>, <italic>e</italic>, <italic>i</italic>, <italic>o</italic>, <italic>u</italic>, comprise them all.<footnote indicator="Dagger"><paragraph type="footnote">Although we have said that <italic>a</italic>, <italic>e</italic>, <italic>i</italic>, <italic>o</italic>, <italic>u</italic>, contain the whole of the vowels, yet <italic>w</italic> and <italic>y</italic>, when at the end of syllables or words, are vowels also; but when they begin words or syllables they are consonants</paragraph></footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>To each of these two different sounds belong;</l> <l>One that is <italic>short</italic>, another that is <italic>long</italic>:</l> <l>Five <italic>double vowels</italic> add, to fill the vocal throng.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Beside the <italic>long</italic> and <italic>short</italic>, to <italic>a</italic> does fall</l> <l>A sound that's <italic>broad</italic>, as in <italic>all</italic>, <italic>call</italic>, and <italic>ball</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>A</italic>'s <italic>short</italic> when single consonants conclude,</l> <l>Or two such letters in the midst intrude,</l> <l>Or seem in sound to take the middle part;</l> <l>But final <italic>e</italic> doth length to these impart:</l> <l>Thus <italic>a</italic> is short in <italic>bat</italic>, likewise in <italic>battle</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Mad</italic>, <italic>mangle</italic>, <italic>man</italic>, <italic>cat</italic>, <italic>can</italic>, and <italic>cattle</italic>.</l> <l>'Tis always short in <italic>habit</italic>, <italic>dragon</italic>, <italic>banish</italic>,</l> <l>And longer words, as <italic>natural</italic>, <italic>evanish</italic>.</l> <l>Whenever silent <italic>e</italic> is in the close,</l> <l>Then <italic>a</italic> is long we rightly do suppose;</l> <l>As will appear in <italic>bat</italic>, <italic>bate</italic>, <italic>can</italic>, and <italic>cane</italic>,</l> <l>In <italic>bad</italic>, <italic>bade</italic>; <italic>mad</italic>, <italic>made</italic>; <italic>man</italic>, <italic>mane</italic>; <italic>ban</italic>, and <italic>bane</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>E</italic> is of different sound, and various use,</l> <l>Silent itself, all vowels does produce;</l> <l>Although 'tis mute, yet sometimes it is found</l> <l>To lengthen ev'en its own preceding sound,</l> <l>As we in <italic>scene</italic> and <italic>glebe</italic>, and others find;</l> <l>But <italic>e</italic> is mostly of the shorter kind;</l> <l>As in <italic>wet</italic>, <italic>let</italic>, <italic>well</italic>, <italic>met</italic>, and <italic>rest</italic>,</l> <l>And <italic>fret</italic>, <italic>help</italic>, <italic>left</italic>, <italic>bed</italic>, <italic>den</italic>, and <italic>blest</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>I</italic> before <italic>r</italic> doth sound like <italic>u</italic>; as, <italic>flirt</italic>,</l> <l>Likewise in <italic>first</italic>, <italic>thirst</italic>, <italic>skirt</italic>, <italic>third</italic>, <italic>sir</italic>, and <italic>dirt</italic>;</l> <pagebreak page_no="18"/> <l><italic>I</italic> before <italic>r</italic> another sound does suit,</l> <l>As in <italic>irreverent</italic>, <italic>irresolute</italic>.</l> <l>It sounds like <italic>ee</italic>, as may be seen,</l> <l>In words like these, <italic>machine</italic> and <italic>magazine</italic>.</l> <l>And yet to sound like <italic>y</italic> it does incline,</l> <l>In <italic>joint</italic>, <italic>appoint</italic>, <italic>boil</italic>, <italic>broil</italic>, <italic>toil</italic>, <italic>moil</italic>, and <italic>join</italic>.</l> <l>No English word can end in naked <italic>i</italic>,</l> <l>But in its stead we always put a <italic>y</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>O</italic> doth express more sorts of sound than one,</l> <l>Long <italic>o</italic> in <italic>go</italic>, but like <italic>short u</italic> in <italic>son</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Two sounds in <italic>u</italic> we easily do find;</l> <l><italic>Rub</italic>'s of the shorter, <italic>muse</italic> the longer kind.</l> </paragraph> </div2> <div2> <heading level="2"><small_caps>Of Double Vowels, or Diphthongs.</small_caps></heading> <paragraph> <l>When of two vowels the compounded sound</l> <l>Completely in one syllable is found,</l> <l>Of both partaking, yet distinct from all,</l> <l>This we a proper double vowel call;</l> <l>But if the sound of one be heard alone,</l> <l>'Tis then improperly so called, we own,</l> <l>Though of the proper it before were one.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Sev'n proper double vowels we allow,</l> <l>(At th' end of words place <italic>ay</italic>, <italic>ey</italic>, <italic>oy</italic>, and <italic>ow</italic>)</l> <l>These are <italic>ai</italic>, <italic>au</italic>, <italic>ee</italic>, <italic>ei</italic>, <italic>oi</italic>, <italic>oo</italic>, and <italic>ou</italic>,</l> <l>Thus, <italic>fair</italic>, <italic>laud</italic>, <italic>feed</italic>, <italic>heir</italic>, <italic>voice</italic>, <italic>house</italic>, <italic>bay</italic>, and <italic>boy</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Prey</italic>, <italic>they</italic>, <italic>snow</italic>, <italic>know</italic>, <italic>below</italic>, <italic>embay</italic>, <italic>decoy</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Improper diphthongs ten we have in view;</l> <l><italic>Aa</italic>, <italic>ea</italic>, <italic>eo</italic>, <italic>ei</italic>, <italic>ie</italic>, <italic>oa</italic>, <italic>oe</italic>, <italic>ue</italic>, <italic>ui</italic>, <italic>eu</italic>.</l> <l>These ev'ry youth may easily discern,</l> <l>Especially if he's inclin'd to learn.</l> </paragraph> </div2> <div2> <heading level="2"><small_caps>Of Treble Vowels, or Triphthongs.</small_caps></heading> <paragraph> <l>Three vowels too will sometimes be combined</l> <l>In one soft sound; but few of these we find:</l> <l>Thus, <italic>eau</italic> in <italic>beauty</italic>; <italic>ieu</italic> in <italic>lieu</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Adieu</italic>; and <italic>iew</italic> in <italic>view</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="19"/> <heading level="2"><small_caps>Of Consonants.</small_caps></heading> <paragraph> <l>A consonant no proper sound obtains,</l> <l>But from its <italic>sounding with</italic> the name it gains;</l> <l>And yet it varies every vowel's sound,</l> <l>Whether before, or after it, 'tis found.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>B</italic> one unvaried sound doth always claim; Beginning, middle, end, 'tis all the same;</l> <l>Thus, <italic>baker</italic>, <italic>butler</italic>, <italic>rubber</italic>, and <italic>debase</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Rhubarb</italic> and <italic>curb</italic>, and all words in such case.</l> <l>But yet it silent is in <italic>debtor</italic>, <italic>thumb</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Doubt</italic>, <italic>subtle</italic>, <italic>lamb</italic>, as also <italic>debt</italic> and <italic>dumb</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>C</italic> the hard sound of <italic>k</italic> will ever keep</l> <l>Before <italic>a</italic>, <italic>o</italic>, <italic>u</italic>, <italic>l</italic>, and <italic>r</italic>; as <italic>creep</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Cloth</italic>, <italic>cup</italic>, <italic>cost</italic>, <italic>cat</italic>. Before <italic>e</italic>, <italic>i</italic>, and <italic>y</italic>,</l> <l>Or an apostrophe, which doth <italic>e</italic> imply,</l> <l>It mostly takes the softer sound of <italic>s</italic>,</l> <l>As <italic>centre</italic>, <italic>civil</italic>, <italic>cymbal</italic>, do confess.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>When final <italic>c</italic> without an <italic>e</italic> is found,</l> <l>'Tis hard; but silent <italic>e</italic> gives softer sound.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>C</italic> before <italic>h</italic> sounds <italic>tch</italic>, as <italic>church</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Chalk</italic>, <italic>cherry</italic>, <italic>chance</italic>, <italic>chip</italic>, <italic>chin</italic> and <italic>lurch</italic>.</l> <l>But sometimes it doth sound like <italic>k</italic>; as <italic>chart</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Scheme</italic>, <italic>chorus</italic>, <italic>distich</italic>, which a little art</l> <l>Will soon point out; and foreign names will show</l> <l>The same, as <italic>Achish</italic>, <italic>Enoch</italic> place in view.</l> <l><italic>Ch</italic> like <italic>sh</italic> sounds, as in the words <italic>machine</italic>,</l> <l>And <italic>chaise</italic> and <italic>chevalier</italic>, likewise <italic>chagrin</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>D</italic> one unvarying sound doth always choose</l> <l>At first, in midst, and at the last to use.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>F</italic> the same certain rule doth follow,</l> <l>As <italic>faithful</italic>, <italic>forfeit</italic>, <italic>fortune</italic>, <italic>fallow</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>G</italic> alters with the vowel oft its sound;</l> <l>'Tis soft 'fore <italic>e</italic> or <italic>i</italic>, else hard is found.</l> <l>When <italic>g</italic> doth close a word 'tis hard, as <italic>snug</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Bag</italic>, <italic>key</italic>, <italic>gig</italic>, <italic>frog</italic>, <italic>sing</italic>, <italic>ring</italic>, <italic>drug</italic>, <italic>dug</italic>, and <italic>pug</italic>,</l> <l><italic>G</italic> before <italic>n</italic> resigns its sound, as <italic>feign</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Gnash</italic>, <italic>gnaw</italic>, <italic>impugn</italic>, <italic>gnat</italic>, <italic>sign</italic>, <italic>vignette</italic>, and <italic>deign</italic>.</l> <pagebreak page_no="20"/> <l>Gh the sound of f takes oft in th' end,<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">As, <italic>laugh</italic>, <italic>cough</italic>, <italic>tough</italic>, <italic>enough</italic>, and <italic>rough</italic>.</paragraph></footnote></l> <l>But sometimes it is dropp'd the sound to mend.<footnote indicator="Dagger"><paragraph type="footnote">As in <italic>high</italic>, <italic>right</italic>, <italic>plough</italic>, <italic>mighty</italic>, <italic>bright</italic>, <italic>sight</italic>.</paragraph></footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>H</italic>, though deny'd a letter oft before,</l> <l>We justly to the alphabet restore.<footnote indicator="Double Dagger"><paragraph type="footnote"><italic>H</italic> is forcibly pronounced in <italic>habit</italic>, <italic>habitation</italic>, <italic>halo</italic>, <italic>ham</italic>, <italic>hand</italic>, <italic>hard</italic>, <italic>harvest</italic>, <italic>hatred</italic>, <italic>head</italic>, <italic>heart</italic>, <italic>heed</italic>, <italic>here</italic>, <italic>heaven</italic>, <italic>hell</italic>, <italic>highness</italic>, <italic>history</italic>, &c.; but it is silent after <italic>r</italic>, as <italic>rhetoric</italic>, <italic>rhubarb</italic>, <italic>rheumatism</italic>.</paragraph></footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>J</italic> always has the softer sound of <italic>g</italic>;</l> <l>As <italic>jargon</italic>, <italic>jocund</italic>, <italic>jointure</italic>, <italic>jeopardy</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>K</italic> sounds hard <italic>c</italic> 'fore vowels <italic>i</italic> and <italic>e</italic>,</l> <l>As in the words <italic>king</italic>, <italic>kingdom</italic>, <italic>kine</italic>, and <italic>key</italic>;</l> <l>But before <italic>n</italic> it has no sound, we trow,</l> <l>As <italic>knave</italic>, <italic>knife</italic>, <italic>knight</italic>, <italic>knock</italic>, <italic>knuckle</italic>, <italic>knowledge</italic>, <italic>know</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>L</italic> has a liquid sound, but that is soft,</l> <l>As in <italic>love</italic>, <italic>ballad</italic>, <italic>billow</italic>, <italic>coal</italic>, and <italic>loft</italic>.</l> <l>But <italic>l</italic> is sometimes mute, as <italic>calf</italic>, <italic>half</italic>, <italic>talk</italic>,</l> <l>Likewise in <italic>psalm</italic>, <italic>could</italic>, <italic>would</italic>, <italic>calves</italic>, <italic>halves</italic>, and <italic>walk</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>M</italic> never varies in the least its sound,</l> <l>As in <italic>man</italic>, <italic>manner</italic>, <italic>mummy</italic>, will be found.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>N</italic> keeps its sound in <italic>man</italic>, <italic>none</italic>, <italic>noble</italic>, <italic>tend</italic>,</l> <l>But after <italic>m</italic> 'tis mute when at the end.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>The same sound always we observe in <italic>P</italic>,</l> <l>As <italic>print</italic> and <italic>paper</italic>, <italic>parchment</italic>, <italic>prop</italic>, and <italic>pea</italic>.</l> <l>'Tis mute in <italic>psalter</italic>, <italic>psalm</italic>, and <italic>Ptolemy</italic>,</l> <l>And <italic>tempt</italic>, <italic>prompt</italic>, <italic>vampt</italic>, when between <italic>m</italic> and <italic>t</italic>.</l> <l><italic>Ph</italic> sounds <italic>f</italic>, as in <italic>geography</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Phoenix</italic>, <italic>phenomenon</italic>, <italic>philosophy</italic>.</l> <l><italic>Ph</italic> sometimes, howe'er, is dropp'd withal,</l> <l>In <italic>phthisis</italic>, <italic>phthisic</italic>, and in <italic>phthisical</italic>.</l> <l><italic>Ph</italic> in <italic>Stephen</italic> too is spoke like <italic>v</italic>,</l> <l>Likewise in <italic>nephew</italic>, as you here do see.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>Q</italic>, it doth seem, is always sounded <italic>kew</italic>,</l> <l>And ne'er is penn'd without a following <italic>u</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>To <italic>R</italic> a sound that's rough doth most obtain,</l> <l>As <italic>rage</italic>, <italic>rife</italic>, <italic>wretched</italic>, <italic>radish</italic>, <italic>rural</italic>, <italic>rain</italic>;</l> <l>But yet it hath a softer one, as <italic>bird</italic>,</l> <l>And <italic>bard</italic>, <italic>card</italic>, <italic>warmer</italic>, <italic>colder</italic>, <italic>darker</italic>, <italic>curd</italic></l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="21"/> <paragraph> <l>The genuine sound of <italic>S</italic> must be acute</l> <l>And hissing; but the close that does not suit;</l> <l>There 'tis obscure, and is pronounc’d like <italic>zed</italic>,</l> <l>And also 'twixt two vowels, as <italic>pleased</italic>.</l> <l>The sound of <italic>s</italic> is lost in the words <italic>isle</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Demesne</italic> and <italic>island</italic>, <italic>viscount</italic> and <italic>Carlisle</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>T</italic> before <italic>i</italic>, t' another vowel join'd,</l> <l>Sounds like the sharp and hissing <italic>s</italic> we find;</l> <l>As <italic>nation</italic>, <italic>station</italic>, also <italic>expiation</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Expatiate</italic>, <italic>propitiate</italic>, <italic>vexation</italic>.</l> <l>But when an <italic>s</italic> or <italic>x</italic> doth <italic>ti</italic> precede,</l> <l>For its own sound it earnestly doth plead;</l> <l>As <italic>fustian</italic>, <italic>question</italic>, <italic>mixtion</italic>, <italic>bestial</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Commixtion</italic>, and the word <italic>celestial</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>V</italic> to the <italic>f</italic> by nature is allied,</l> <l>And to its final has <italic>e</italic> always tied.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>To <italic>W</italic> two natures do belong;</l> <l>'Tis consonant and vowel in our tongue:</l> <l>The first begins all words, yet none can end,</l> <l>The latter for the close doth most contend.</l> <l>Its sound 'fore <italic>r</italic> is lost or very weak,</l> <l>As <italic>wrap</italic> and <italic>wrangle</italic>, <italic>wrong</italic>, <italic>wry</italic>, <italic>write</italic>, and <italic>wreak</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>And the same right that <italic>w</italic> demands,</l> <l><italic>Y</italic> doth require, according as it stands.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Three sev'ral sounds we now must give to <italic>X</italic>,</l> <l>Like <italic>z</italic> in <italic>Xerxes</italic>; in <italic>exit</italic> like <italic>ks</italic>;</l> <l>Like <italic>gz</italic> sometimes, as in <italic>exultation</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Exude</italic>, <italic>example</italic>, and <italic>exaggeration</italic>,<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">Generally, when a vowel follows <italic>ex</italic> it is sounded like <italic>gz</italic>; but if a consonant follow, it sounds like <italic>ks</italic>.</paragraph></footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>The <italic>Z</italic> a double consonant always is,</l> <l>And strongly tinctur’d with the sound of <italic>s</italic>;</l> <l>As <italic>zeal</italic> and <italic>zany</italic>, <italic>zealot</italic>, <italic>zealously</italic>,</l> <l>And <italic>buzzard</italic>, <italic>quizzer</italic>, <italic>zone</italic>, <italic>zoology</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>These the chief sounds of all the letters are,</l> <l>As the examples given do declare.</l> </paragraph> </div2> <pagebreak page_no="22"/> <div2> <heading level="2"><small_caps>Of Syllables.</small_caps></heading> <paragraph> <l>A syllable's a short and perfect sound,</l> <l>Where'er a single, or a double vowel's found;</l> <l>Or either join'd with consonants, and spoke</l> <l>In one entire breathing, as in <italic>smoke</italic>.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">A syllable is a complete and perfect sound, uttered in one breath, by a single impulse of the voice, which sometimes consists of one vowel, or double vowel; and sometimes of one vowel, or double vowel, joined to one or more consonants. Hence a single vowel may compose a syllable, as the first syllable in the following words: <italic>a-bandon</italic>, <italic>e-jectment</italic>, <italic>i-deal</italic>, <italic>o-pium</italic>, <italic>u-nion</italic>; but no number of consonants can be sounded without the aid of a vowel.</paragraph></footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>As many vowels as emit a sound,</l> <l>So many syllables in words are found.<footnote indicator="Dagger"><paragraph type="footnote">Except any of those vowels be silent, as the final <italic>e</italic>, and some others, which compose improper double vowels or dipththongs, together with the <italic>e</italic> which is added to some syllables in the middle of words, for the purpose of lengthening the sound of the foregoing vowel, as <italic>rarely</italic>, <italic>rudely</italic>; except also words ending in <italic>es</italic>, without <italic>s</italic> preceding <italic>e</italic> (whether in the singular or plural number); as, Sing. <italic>James</italic>, <italic>inclines</italic>, <italic>refines</italic>; Plur. <italic>names</italic>, <italic>trades</italic>, <italic>groves</italic>, &c. But if <italic>s</italic> or the sound of <italic>s</italic> precede <italic>es</italic>, it makes another syllable; as, <italic>horse</italic>, <italic>horses</italic>; <italic>prince</italic>, <italic>princes</italic>; <italic>face</italic>, <italic>faces</italic>; <italic>prize</italic>, <italic>prizes</italic>.</paragraph></footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>When any single consonant is seen,</l> <l>Single or double vowels plac’d between,</l> <l>The consonant divideth with the last,</l> <l>But to the first the <italic>p</italic> and <italic>x</italic> join fast.<footnote indicator="Double Dagger"><paragraph type="footnote">A single consonant between two vowels must be joined to the latter syllable; as, <italic>de-light</italic>, <italic>bri-dal</italic>, <italic>re-form</italic>. From this rule <italic>p</italic> and <italic>x</italic> are excepted; as, <italic>up-on</italic>, <italic>ex-act</italic>.</paragraph></footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>In compound words its own will each retain,</l> <l>Deriv'd compounds new endings must obtain.<footnote indicator="Section Sign"><paragraph type="footnote"> In all compounded and derivative words, the single or primitive words retain their own letters. A compound word is either composed of two distinct words; as, <italic>in-to</italic>, <italic>up-on</italic>, <italic>thank-ful</italic>, <italic>coach-man</italic>, <italic>sap-less</italic>, <italic>up-hold</italic>, <italic>where-by</italic>, <italic>with-in</italic>, <italic>with-out</italic>, <italic>with-draw</italic>, &c.; or, it is made up of one word, which is called a primitive, and a syllable placed before it, which is called a particle of preposition, because it is set before the word: such are <italic>ad</italic>, <italic>en</italic>, <italic>in</italic>, <italic>un</italic>, <italic>de</italic>, <italic>dis</italic>, <italic>per</italic>, <italic>pre</italic>, <italic>re</italic>, <italic>sub</italic>, <italic>trans</italic>, &c.; whence arise such words as these, <italic>ad-equate</italic>, <italic>en-trap</italic>, <italic>in-connexion</italic>, <italic>un-bred</italic>, <italic>de-part</italic>, <italic>dis-avow</italic>, <italic>per-chance</italic>, <italic>pre-science</italic>, <italic>re-admit</italic>, <italic>sub-urb</italic>, <italic>trans-form</italic>, &c. A derivative compound word is that which comes from some other word, and is formed by an additional ending; such as, <italic>ed</italic>, <italic>en</italic>, <italic>ess</italic>, <italic>est</italic>, <italic>eth</italic>, <italic>edst</italic>, <italic>er</italic>, <italic>ing</italic>, <italic>ish</italic>, <italic>ist</italic>, <italic>ly</italic>, <italic>ous</italic>; thus, <italic>paint-ed</italic>, <italic>gold-en</italic>, <italic>count-ess</italic>, <italic>read-est</italic>, <italic>speak-eth</italic>, <italic>deliver-edst</italic>, <italic>hear-er</italic>, <italic>talk-ing</italic>, <italic>fool-ish</italic>, <italic>art-ist</italic>, <italic>covet-ous</italic>, <italic>kind-ly</italic>; in which, and all others of a similar kind, the primitive words retain their own letters.</paragraph></footnote></l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="23"/> <paragraph> <l>The consonants preceding <italic>l</italic> and <italic>r</italic>,</l> <l>Follow'd by <italic>e</italic>, never divided are.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">As, <italic>affa-ble</italic>, <italic>tri-fle</italic>, <italic>mi-tre</italic>. Examples to this rule seem to be included in the following.</paragraph></footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Two consonants between two vowels plac'd,</l> <l>Fit to begin a word, go to the last.</l> <l>But those which can no word at all commence,</l> <l>Ne'er can a syllable, without offence.<footnote indicator="Dagger"><paragraph type="footnote">When two consonants, proper to begin a word, come between two vowels, they belong to the latter syllable; as, <linebreak/> <table cols="2" rows="29"> <row role="data"> <cell>Bl</cell> <cell>Able</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Cl</cell> <cell>Bar-na-cle</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Pl</cell> <cell>Ca-ta-plasm</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Sl</cell> <cell>A-sleep</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Br</cell> <cell>A-broach</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Cr</cell> <cell>A-cre</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Dr</cell> <cell>Be-drench</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Fr</cell> <cell>A-fraid</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Gr</cell> <cell>A-gree</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Pr</cell> <cell>Ca-price</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Tr</cell> <cell>Me-trical</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Wr</cell> <cell>A-wry</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Ch</cell> <cell>Ba-che-lor</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Dw</cell> <cell>Be-dwarf</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Gn</cell> <cell>Be-gnaw</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Fl</cell> <cell>A-float</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Gl</cell> <cell>De-glu-ti-ti-on</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Kn</cell> <cell>Be-know</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Sc</cell> <cell>De-scribe</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Sh</cell> <cell>A-shore</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Sm</cell> <cell>Be-smear</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Sn</cell> <cell>Be-snub</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Sp</cell> <cell>A-spire</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Sq</cell> <cell>A-squint</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>St</cell> <cell>A-stro-no-my</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Sw</cell> <cell>For-swear</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Th</cell> <cell>A-thwart</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Tw</cell> <cell>Be-tween</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Wh</cell> <cell>Mean-while</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"> To this rule, however, as well as to the former, this exception holds, that compound words keep each its part, and additional endings form distinct syllables. And where two consonants occur together that are not proper to begin a word, the former belongs to the first syllable, the latter to the last; as, <linebreak/> <table cols="2" rows="9"> <row role="data"> <cell>Ld</cell> <cell>Seldom</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Lt</cell> <cell>Mul-ti-ply</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Mp</cell> <cell>Trum-pet</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Nd</cell> <cell>En-dorse</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Nj</cell> <cell>Un-just</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Rd</cell> <cell>Ar-dent</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Bb</cell> <cell>Dib-ber</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Cc</cell> <cell>Ac-cord</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Gg</cell> <cell>Swagger</cell> </row> </table> And many others. </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"> But when three or more consonants meet in the middle of a word, the first consonant generally belongs to the first vowel, and the others to the latter; as, <linebreak/> <table cols="2" rows="5"> <row role="data"> <cell>Ntr</cell> <cell>Con-tract</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Ppr</cell> <cell>Op-press</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Mpr</cell> <cell>Com-pre-hend</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Xpl</cell> <cell>Ex-plode</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Nstr</cell> <cell>In-struct</cell> </row> </table> And others. </paragraph> </footnote></l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="24"/> <paragraph> <l>Two vowels meeting, each with its full sound,</l> <l>Always to make two syllables are bound.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote"> If two vowels occur in the middle of a word, each of them having its full and proper sound, they must be divided; as, <linebreak/> <table cols="2" rows="6"> <row role="data"> <cell>Re-en-ter</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Co-a-li-tion</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Co-o-pe-ra-tion</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Pro-nun-ci-a-ti-on</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Ac-tu-ate</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Ac-cen-tu-a-ti-on</cell> </row> </table> This is the case wherever they do not form a diphthong.</paragraph> </footnote></l> </paragraph> </div2> </div1> <div1 description="main_text" name="Etymology"> <heading level="1">ETYMOLOGY.</heading> <paragraph> <l>Observe, that <small_caps>Etymology</small_caps> extends</l> <l>To parts of speech, and rules for them commends;</l> <l>Likewise of words it shows how they're deriv’d,</l> <l>By which the English tongue so much has thriv'd.</l> <l>It shows the variations of each part,</l> <l>And is a principal grammatic art.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>The parts of speech we find in number nine,</l> <l>And each of them, we now shall here define.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>And, first, the <italic>Article</italic> will surely own</l> <l>The foremost place; then <italic>noun</italic>, <italic>pronoun</italic>;</l> <l>Then <italic>verb</italic>, and <italic>participle</italic> follow on;</l> <l>With <italic>adverb</italic>, and the <italic>preposition</italic>;</l> <l><italic>Conjunction</italic>'s next in place, without a doubt,</l> <l>But <italic>interjection</italic> some would do without.</l> </paragraph> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of the Article."> <heading level="2"><small_caps>Of the Article.</small_caps></heading> <paragraph> <l>Before a noun the article must be</l> <l>Plac'd to restrict it, as below yon see:</l> <l>There are but two, viz. <italic>a</italic> or <italic>an</italic> and <italic>the</italic>.<footnote indicator="Dagger"><paragraph type="footnote"> <italic>A</italic> or <italic>an</italic> is called an indefinite article, because it is used in a vague sense, to point out one single thing of a kind; as, <small_caps>a</small_caps> <italic>man</italic>, that is, <italic>any man</italic>; <small_caps>a</small_caps> <italic>town</italic>, that is, <italic>any town</italic>: <small_caps>an</small_caps> <italic>apple</italic>, <small_caps>an</small_caps> <italic>orchard</italic>. Here observe, that <italic>a</italic> is used before a consonant, and <italic>an</italic> before a vowel, which rule must always be followed. <italic>The</italic> is called the definite article, because it distinguishes some particular person or thing; as, <italic>Give me</italic> <small_caps>the</small_caps> <italic>book</italic>, that is, <italic>the particular book</italic>. <italic>A</italic> or <italic>an</italic> can be joined to nouns in the singular number only; but <italic>the</italic> may be joined also to plurals.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">These little words placed before nouns are of great importance, as may be seen in the following examples: thus, <small_caps>the</small_caps> <italic>son of</italic> <small_caps>a</small_caps> <italic>bishop</italic>; <small_caps>the</small_caps> <italic>son of</italic> <small_caps>the</small_caps> <italic>bishop</italic>; <small_caps>a</small_caps> <italic>son of</italic> <small_caps>the</small_caps> <italic>bishop</italic>. Each of these sentences has a meaning peculiar to itself, through the different application of those little words called articles. Again:<linebreak/> <l>"Extirpate the root that produces a thorn,</l> <l>But nourish the tree on which fruitage is borne.</l> <l>Extinguish the lamp of a tyrant with speed;</l> <l>The one better die than the people should bleed."</l> </paragraph> </footnote></l> </paragraph> </div2> <pagebreak page_no="25"/> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of Nouns."> <heading level="2">OF NOUNS.</heading> <paragraph> <l>Whate'er we see, feel, hear, smell, touch, or taste,</l> <l>Or in the understanding's eye is placed,</l> <l>Nouns properly we call; for always they</l> <l>Some certain image to the mind convey;</l> <l>As man, horse, house, virtue, and happiness,</l> <l>And all such words as things themselves express.</l> <l>Of nouns two sorts we certainly do find</l> <l>(Expressive of the senses and the mind);</l> <l>The first grammarians call noun substantive,</l> <l>The second they declare noun adjective.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">Nouns or substantives are words used to express things themselves, that is, every thing that is the object of our several senses; of seeing, feeling, hearing, smelling, touching, tasting, reflection, and understanding; which, conveying some certain image or idea to the mind, want not the help of any other word to cause us to understand them. Thus, when we hear any one say, a man, a horse, a house, virtue, vice, happiness, &c., we perfectly understand his meaning.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Nouns of the substantive kind being used to express the things themselves, it is impossible to put the word thing after them without making nonsense; for you cannot say, man thing, horse thing, virtue thing, happiness thing. But the word thing may be used with a noun adjective; as, a good thing, &c.. Of adjectives we shall have occasion to speak hereafter.</paragraph></footnote></l> <folio folio_no="C"/> <pagebreak page_no="26"/> <l>Of nouns two several sorts 'tis clear there are,</l> <l>The common<footnote indicator="Asterisk">Common nouns or substantives stand for kinds containing many sorts or individuals under them; as, <italic>man, animal, horse, house, tree, town</italic>, &c.</footnote> and the proper<footnote indicator="Dagger"> Substantives, or nouns proper, distinguish particulars or individuals; as the names of people, cities, towns, mountains, rivers, countries, &c. Thus, <italic>George, London, Cambridge, Snowdon, Thames, England</italic>, &c.</footnote> do declare.</l> </paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of Number."> <heading level="2">OF NUMBER.</heading> <paragraph> <l>Two different endings different numbers show,</l> <l>And which no other part of speech does know.<footnote indicator="Double Dagger">Nouns, which signify either one or more of the same kind, must have different numbers to point out their difference: as, the <italic>singular</italic>, which confines the thing spoken of to <italic>one</italic>; and the <italic>plural</italic>, which signifies <italic>more than one</italic>.</footnote></l></paragraph> <paragraph><l>To <italic>singular</italic> nouns we mostly add an <italic>s</italic></l> <l>When we the <italic>plural number</italic> would express;</l> <l>Or else <italic>es</italic>, for more harmonious sound,</l> <l>Whene'er the singular to end is found</l> <l>In <italic>x</italic>, <italic>ch</italic>, <italic>shy</italic> or <italic>ss</italic>,</l> <l>As in the note most clearly we express.<footnote indicator="Section Sign">The <italic>singular</italic> number is made <italic>plural</italic> by adding <italic>s</italic>; as, <italic>tree, trees; hand, hands; prince, princes; page, pages; prize, prizes</italic>. But when the singular ends in <italic>x</italic>, <italic>ch</italic>, <italic>sh</italic>, or <italic>ss</italic>; by the addition of <italic>es</italic>; as, <italic>fox, foxes; church, churches; fish, fishes; witness, witnesses</italic>.</footnote></l></paragraph> <paragraph><l>The following examples too are seen,</l> <l>When for the <italic>s</italic> the plural ends in <italic>en</italic>,</l> <l>As <italic>oxen</italic>, <italic>brethren</italic>, <italic>women</italic>, also <italic>men</italic>.</l></paragraph> <paragraph><l>To these irregulars some more add yet;</l> <l>As follow: <italic>mouse, mice</italic>; <italic>goose, geese</italic>; and <italic>foot, feet</italic>;</l> <l><italic>Tooth, teeth</italic>; <italic>die, dice</italic>; and likewise <italic>penny, pence</italic>;</l> <l>And all such words as have a like pretence.</l></paragraph> <paragraph><l>The nouns, whose singlars end in <italic>f</italic>, <italic>fe</italic>,</l> <l>Their plurals have in <italic>ves</italic> we see:</l> <l><italic>Calf, calves</italic>; <italic>sheaf, sheaves</italic>; <italic>half, halves</italic>; <italic>wife, wives</italic>;</l> <l><italic>Loaf, loaves</italic>; <italic>leaf, leaves</italic>; <italic>self, selves</italic>; <italic>life, lives</italic>.</l> <pagebreak page_no="27"/> <l>Except <italic>hoof, roof, dwarf, wharf, proof, stuff, relief</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Ruff, cuff, skiff, muff, scurf, handkerchief</italic>, and <italic>grief</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Some nouns there are which terminate in <italic>y</italic>,</l> <l>As may be seen in <italic>cherry, story, fly</italic>,</l> <l>Which for the plural turn <italic>y</italic> into <italic>ies</italic>,</l> <l>As you behold in <italic>cherries, stories, flies</italic>.</l> <l>Except <italic>ay</italic>, <italic>ey</italic>, or <italic>oy</italic>, the sing'lar close;</l> <l>As, <italic>day, days; key, keys; boy, boys</italic>: custom shows.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>To others she, with arbitrary will,</l> <l>Denies the claim of plural number still:</l> <l>All <italic>proper names</italic> we in this rule contain;</l> <l>The names of <italic>liquids</italic>, <italic>herbs</italic>, most sorts of <italic>grain</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Spice, unctuous matter, wax, pitch, tar</italic>, and <italic>glue</italic>;</l> <l>The names of <italic>virtues, vices, metals</italic> too.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">Under this rule we have to notice all proper names, or substantives proper, such as those of men, women, mountains, rivers, cities, towns, countries, &c. (which we have adverted to before); as, <italic>Alexander the Great, Julius Cæsar, Queen Anne, George the Third, Vesuvius, Thames, Danube, London, Paris, Birmingham, England, France</italic>, &c. All these deny the plural number, as is the case with the following:—</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Liquids</italic>; as, <italic>wine, ale, beer, oil, milk, vinegar</italic>, &c.; but when these, and many that follow, signify several sorts; they are used in the plural; as, <italic>wines, ales</italic>, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Herbs</italic>; as, <italic>mint, sage, rosemary, southernwood, endive, parsley</italic>; except, <italic>cabbages, potatoes, leeks, nettles</italic>, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Grain</italic>; as, <italic>wheat, rye, barley, darnel, bran, meal</italic>; except <italic>oats, tares, beans, peas</italic>, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Spice</italic>; as, <italic>pepper, ginger, cinnamon, mace</italic>; except <italic>cloves, nutmegs</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Unctuous matter</italic>; as <italic>honey, butter, grease, wax, fat, pitch, tar, lard, bitumen, glue</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Metals</italic>; as, <italic>gold, silver, copper, lead, brass, tin, iron</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Virtues</italic>; as, <italic>prudence,justice, generosity, chastity</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Vices</italic>; as, <italic>sloth, avarice, envy, pride</italic>, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">To these may be added the names of abstract qualities; as, <italic>wisdom, probity, modesty, bashfulness, courage, constancy, contempt</italic>.</paragraph></footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Custom, to which all languages must bow,</l> <l>Does to some nouns no singular allow.<footnote indicator="Dagger">As, <italic>annals, Alps, ashes, bowels, bellows, lungs, entrails, scissors, snuffers, shears, thanks, tongs</italic>, &c.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <folio folio_no="C2"/> <pagebreak page_no="28"/> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of Cases."> <heading level="2">OF CASES.</heading> <paragraph> <l>In modern English, as in that of old,</l> <l><italic>Two cases</italic> only do we find nouns hold;</l> <l>The <italic>nominative</italic> is the noun alone,<footnote indicator="Asterisk">The nominative, or naming case, simply expresses the name of a thing or substance; as, <italic>a boy, a girl, a house, a city</italic>.</footnote></l> <l>And the <italic>possessive</italic> indicates our own.<footnote indicator="Dagger"><paragraph type="footnote">The possessive case expresses the relation of property or possession; and has an apostrophe with the letter s added to the nominative, or name itself; as, <italic>man's strength, woman's beauty</italic>; that is, <italic>the strength of man, the beauty of woman</italic>. Many good writers have been of opinion, that this <italic>'s</italic> is nothing more than a contraction of the word <italic>his</italic>; but in this they are undoubtedly mistaken; for it is (as a comparison of the two languages will point out) an abbreviation of the old Saxon possessive case, which terminated in <italic>is</italic>. Thus the Saxons, to express <italic>the treachery of Judas</italic>, would have said <italic>Judas is treachery</italic>; but the <italic>i</italic> we now supply by the apostrophe.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">English nouns are therefore thus declined: <table cols="3" rows="3"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Nominative Case</cell> <cell>A man</cell> <cell>Men</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Possessive Case</cell> <cell>Man's</cell> <cell>Men's</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">When the noun, whether singular or plural, terminates in <italic>s</italic>, the apostrophe only is generally inserted, and the <italic>s</italic> which marks the possessive case is omitted, especially in words which end in <italic>ss</italic>; as, singular, <italic>for righteousness' sake, for goodness' sake</italic>; plural, <italic>on eagles' wings, the stationers' company</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">We have said above that many suppose this <italic>'s</italic> to be a contraction of <italic>his</italic>, but this is erroneous; as, <italic>Mary's fan</italic> cannot mean <italic>Mary his fan</italic>: that would be nonsense.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The English language, to express the different connexions and relations of one thing to another, uses, for the most part, prepositions; <italic>as, of, to, for, from, with, in</italic>, or <italic>by</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The <judgement type="praise" tedency="positive">ingenious</judgement> <reference referenced="Murray, Lindley" source="English Grammar Adapted to the Different Classes of Learners, 1795, p. 37" type="quotation" judgemental="0">Mr. Lindley Murray</reference>, speaking on this subject (Grammar, p. 37), says, <quotation author="Murray, Lindley" title="English Grammar Adapted to the Different Classes of Learners, 1795, p. 37" source_added="0">"For the assertion, that there are in English but two cases of nouns, and three of pronouns, we have the authority of <reference referencing="Murray, Lindley" referenced="Lowth, Robert" judgemental="0" type="legitimisation">Lowth</reference>, <reference referencing="Murray, Lindley" referenced="Johnson, Samuel" judgemental="0" type="legitimisation">Johnson</reference>, <reference referencing="Murray, Lindley" referenced="Priestley, Joseph" judgemental="0" type="legitimisation">Priestley</reference>, &c., names which are sufficient to decide this point. If case in Grammar mean only the variation of a noun or pronoun, by termination or within itself (as it indisputably does), with what propriety can we distinguish the relations signified by the addition of articles and prepositions. by the name of cases? On this supposition, instead of five or six cases, we shall have a number equal to the various combinations of the article and different prepositions, with the noun, since no one of them can include or represent another."</quotation></paragraph></footnote></l> <pagebreak page_no="29"/> <l>These two are all of which we find account;</l> <l>Though some have made them unto six amount.</l> </paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of Gender."> <heading level="2">OF GENDER.</heading> <paragraph> <l>Three genders in the English tongue we find,</l> <l>The male, the female, and the neuter kind.</l> <l>The male’s call'd masculine, as all agree,</l> <l>Which may be seen in man, betokening he<ed_note type="correction">h</ed_note>.</l> <l>The feminine,; as woman, meaning she:</l> <l>But things that have not life we neuter call,</l> <l>As table, basket, garden, house, or hall.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"> <paragraph type="footnote">In the English language there are three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter. The masculine denotes animals of the male kind, and the feminine those of the female; as, <table cols="2" rows="15"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Masculine</cell> <cell>Feminine</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Man</cell> <cell>Woman</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Boy</cell> <cell>Girl<ed_note type="correction">rl</ed_note></cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Brother</cell> <cell>Sister</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Buck</cell> <cell>Doe</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Bull</cell> <cell>Cow</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Cock</cell> <cell>Hen</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Dog</cell> <cell>Bitch</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Drake</cell> <cell>Duck</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Father</cell> <cell>Mother</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Gander</cell> <cell>Goose</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Horse</cell> <cell>Mare</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Husband</cell> <cell>Wife</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Nephew</cell> <cell>Niece</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Wizzard</cell> <cell>Witch</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">But there are others which mark the gender by varying the termination of the masculine; as, <table cols="2" rows="19"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Masculine</cell> <cell>Feminine</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Abbot</cell> <cell>Abbess</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Abbott</cell> <cell>Abbess</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Actor</cell> <cell>Actress</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Ambassador</cell> <cell>Ambassadress</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Count</cell> <cell>Countess</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Deacon</cell> <cell>Deaconess</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Duke</cell> <cell>Duchess</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Elector</cell> <cell>Electress</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Emperor</cell> <cell>Empress</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Governor</cell> <cell>Governess</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Marquis</cell> <cell>Marchioness</cell> </row> <pagebreak page_no="30"/> <row role="data"> <cell>Master</cell> <cell>Mistress</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Prince</cell> <cell>Princess</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Patron</cell> <cell>Patroness</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Poet</cell> <cell>Poetess</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Tutor</cell> <cell>Tutress</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Administrator</cell> <cell>Administratrix</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Executor</cell> <cell>Executrix</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Sometimes the gender is pointed out by the addition of an adjective or a pronoun to the substantive; as, <italic>a male child, a female child; a he-goat, a she-goat</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">And sometimes by prefixing one noun to another, as, <italic>a manservant, a maidservant; a cock-sparrow, a hen-sparrow</italic>. </paragraph></footnote></l> </paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of Adjectives."> <heading level="2">OF ADJECTIVES.</heading> <paragraph> <l>We’ve seen that <italic>nouns</italic> the <italic>things</italic> themselves express</l> <l>But <italic>adjectives</italic> their <italic>qualities</italic> confess,</l> <l>And on the nouns exclusive depend,</l> <l>For without them no sense do they pretend:</l> <l>As, <italic>red, black, white, swift, crooked, round</italic>, and <italic>square</italic>,</l> <l>Must, to be understood, to nouns adhere.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">We have before observed that nouns express the things themselves, but adjectives are used to show the manner or quality of those things; as, <italic>a</italic> good <italic>man</italic>, <italic>a</italic> bad <italic>man</italic>, <italic>a</italic> black <italic>horse</italic>, <italic>a</italic> white <italic>horse</italic>, <italic>a</italic> round <italic>table</italic>, <italic>a</italic> square <italic>table</italic>, &c.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>Thing</italic>, that to follow nouns we find refuse,</l> <l>Doth after adjectives good sense diffuse;</l> <l>As <italic>black thing, white thing, good thing</italic>, may convince;</l> <l><italic>This</italic> makes <italic>that</italic> understood, and be good sense.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>In adjectives no different numbers are,</l> <l>As their unvaried endings do declare.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Whene’er two nouns compounded we perceive,</l> <l>The first is always deem'd an adjective.<footnote indicator="Dagger">Various nouns assume the nature of adjectives; as, <italic>sea-fish, self-love, home-made, self-murder, wine-vessel, meadow-ground</italic>, &c.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Most adjectives by two degrees do rise,</l> <l>Or fall as much in number, bulk, or price,</l> <l>By adding at the end <italic>r</italic>, <italic>er</italic>, or <italic>est</italic>,</l> <l>Which by some little words is else expressed;</l> <pagebreak page_no="31"/> <l>As, <italic>wise, wiser, wisest</italic>; also <italic>most wise</italic>;</l> <l>But <italic>very</italic> oft the place of <italic>most</italic> supplies.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">There are commonly reckoned three degrees of comparison; the positive, comparative, and superlative.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The <italic>positive</italic> state expresses the quality of an object, but without any increase or diminution; as, <italic>good, wise, great</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The <italic>comparative</italic> degree increases or lessens the signification of the positive state of the adjective; as, <italic>wiser</italic>, or <italic>more wise</italic>; <italic>Less wise</italic>, or <italic>not so wise</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The <italic>superlative</italic> increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree; as, <italic>wisest</italic>, or <italic>most wise</italic>; <italic>least wise</italic>.</paragraph></footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Some few alone irregular are found,</l> <l>And in comparison change name and sound.<footnote indicator="Dagger"><paragraph type="footnote">Some adjectives are very irregular in their form; as, <table cols="3" rows="7"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Positive</cell> <cell>Comparative</cell> <cell>Superlative</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Good</cell> <cell>better</cell> <cell>best</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Bad</cell> <cell>worse</cell> <cell>worst</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Little</cell> <cell>less</cell> <cell>least</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Much, Many</cell> <cell>more</cell> <cell>most</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Near</cell> <cell>nearer</cell> <cell>nearest, or next</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Late</cell> <cell>later</cell> <cell>latest, or last</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph></footnote></l> <l><italic>Superlatives</italic> do end sometimes in <italic>most</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Comparatives</italic> in <italic>er</italic>; as, <italic>nether, nethermost</italic>.</l> </paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of Pronouns."> <heading level="2">OF PRONOUNS.</heading> <paragraph> <l>Some words there are which take the place of nouns.</l> <l>And these the learn'd agree to call <italic>pronouns</italic>.<footnote indicator="Double Dagger">As it is often necessary to repeat what we have to say concerning any person or thing, the frequency of the same words occurring would be very disagreeable to the ear; to avoid which, there are, in all known languages, certain words established to supply their place, and remove this indecorum; and these words are generally styled <italic>pronouns</italic>, because they stand for nouns.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Three persons only every language claims,</l> <l>And we express them by the following names</l> <l><italic>I</italic>, <italic>thou</italic>, and <italic>he, she, it</italic>; <italic>we</italic>, <italic>ye</italic>, and <italic>they</italic>;</l> <l>If you to these add <italic>who</italic> and <italic>what</italic>, you may.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>To pronouns, then, two numbers we allow,</l> <l>A <italic>leading</italic> and a <italic>following state</italic> to know;</l> <l>Beside th' <italic>objective</italic>, as you see below.</l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="32"/> <paragraph> <l>The <italic>leading state</italic> is <italic>I</italic>; the <italic>following, mine</italic>;</l> <l>Th' <italic>objective</italic>, <italic>me</italic>, grammarians define.</l> <l>These to the singular do all belong;</l> <l>And now the plural must be shown as strong:</l> <l>The <italic>following state</italic> is <italic>ours</italic>; the <italic>leading</italic>, <italic>we</italic>;</l> <l>Th' <italic>objective state</italic> is <italic>us</italic>, as all agree.</l> <l>First, second, and third persons, these do claim,<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">Personal pronouns are, <italic>I, thou, he, she, it</italic>; with their plurals, <italic>we, ye, they</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">These personal pronouns admit of person, number, gender, and case or state.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The persons are three, both in the singular and plural number; as <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">First Person</cell> <cell role="data">I</cell> <cell role="data">We</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Second Person</cell> <cell role="data">Thou</cell> <cell role="data">Ye, or you</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Third Person</cell> <cell role="data">He, she, it</cell> <cell role="data">They</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"> Personal pronouns have three states or cases, and are thus declined: <heading_undefined>First Person</heading_undefined> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Nom.</cell> <cell role="data">I</cell> <cell role="data">We</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Possessive</cell> <cell role="data">Mine</cell> <cell role="data">Ours</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Objective</cell> <cell role="data">Me</cell> <cell role="data">Us</cell> </row> </table> <heading_undefined>Second Person</heading_undefined> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Nom.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou</cell> <cell role="data">Ye, or you</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Possessive</cell> <cell role="data">Thine</cell> <cell role="data">Yours</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Objective</cell> <cell role="data">Thee</cell> <cell role="data">You</cell> </row> </table> <heading_undefined>Third Person</heading_undefined> <table cols="5" rows="5"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Masc.</cell> <cell>Fem.</cell> <cell>Neuter</cell> <cell>Masc. & Fem.</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Nom.</cell> <cell role="data">He</cell> <cell role="data">She</cell> <cell role="data">It</cell> <cell role="data">They</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Possessive</cell> <cell role="data">His</cell> <cell role="data">Hers</cell> <cell role="data">Its</cell> <cell role="data">Theirs</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Objective</cell> <cell role="data">Him</cell> <cell role="data">Her</cell> <cell role="data">It</cell> <cell role="data">Them</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph></footnote></l> <l>But <italic>what</italic> and <italic>it</italic> refuse to change their name.</l> <l>Beside the personal pronouns some there are,</l> <l>Which in the notes below we shall declare.<footnote indicator="Dagger"><paragraph type="footnote">Pronouns are divided into several other classes; as, possessive, relative, and demonstrative.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><small_caps>Possessive Pronouns</small_caps> are such as principally relate to possession or property. Of these there are seven; viz. <italic>my, thy, his, her, our, your, their</italic>. Instead of <italic>my</italic> and <italic>thy</italic>, it was formerly the custom to use <italic>mine</italic> and <italic>thine</italic> before a vowel or silent <italic>h</italic>; as, <italic>Blot out all</italic> mine <italic>iniquities</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><small_caps>Relative Pronouns</small_caps> are certain words which relate to some substantive going before; as, <italic>The</italic> man <italic>is happy</italic> who <italic>lives virtuously</italic>; and are therefore generally termed the antecedent. Relatives are <italic>who</italic>, <italic>which</italic>, <italic>what</italic>, and <italic>that</italic>. <italic>Who</italic> is of both numbers, and is thus declined: <table cols="2" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Sing. & Plur.</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Nom.</cell> <cell role="data">Who</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Possessive</cell> <cell role="data">Whose</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Objective</cell> <cell role="data">Whom</cell> </row> </table> <italic>What</italic> is a kind of compound, including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to <italic>that which</italic>; as, <italic>That is</italic> what <italic>I wanted</italic>; that is, <italic>the thing which</italic> I wanted. <italic>Who</italic> is applied to persons, <italic>which</italic> to animals or inanimates. <italic>That</italic>, as a relative, is often used to prevent the too frequent use of <italic>who</italic> and <italic>which</italic>. <italic>Who</italic>, <italic>which</italic>, and <italic>what</italic>, are called interrogatives when they are used in asking questions; as, <italic>Who is there? Which of them? What are you doing?</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><small_caps>Demonstratives</small_caps> are such as point out with precision the subjects to which they relate: <italic>this</italic> and <italic>that</italic>, <italic>these</italic> and <italic>those</italic>, are of this class; as, <italic>this</italic> is true charity, <italic>that</italic> is only its resemblance. <italic>This</italic> has reference to the nearest person or thing; <italic>that</italic>, to the more remote or distant.</paragraph></footnote></l> </paragraph> </div2> <pagebreak page_no="33"/> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of Verbs."> <heading level="2">OF VERBS.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">A verb is a part of speech which is, as it were, the soul of language, for no sentence can subsist without it, because nothing can be spoken that is either affirmed or denied without its assistance.</footnote></heading> <paragraph> <l>A <small_caps>Verb</small_caps> (or <small_caps>Affirmation</small_caps>) we shall show</l> <l>Affirmeth something, and does <italic>number</italic> know,</l> <l><italic>Mood</italic>, <italic>time</italic>, and <italic>person</italic>; whether it express</l> <l><italic>Action</italic>, <italic>being</italic>, <italic>passion</italic>; or their want confess.<footnote indicator="Dagger"> <paragraph type="footnote">A verb (or affirmation), as the latter term imports, affirms some attribute, with the designation of <italic>mood</italic>, <italic>time</italic>, <italic>number</italic>, and <italic>person</italic>, and expresses <small_caps>being</small_caps>, <small_caps>doing</small_caps>, or <small_caps>suffering</small_caps>, or the want of them, or the like; that is, how or in what manner one person or thing is acted upon or affected by another; thus, <small_caps>being</small_caps> or <small_caps>existing</small_caps>; as, <italic>I am</italic>: <small_caps>doing</small_caps>, or <small_caps>action</small_caps>; as, <italic>I love</italic>: <small_caps>suffering</small_caps> or <small_caps>passion</small_caps>; as, <italic>I am loved</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">A verb has two <italic>numbers</italic>: the singular, <italic>I love</italic>; and the plural, <italic>we love</italic>.</paragraph></footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>By <italic>moods</italic>, or <italic>modes</italic>, particular forms we learn,</l> <l>Which every youth should carefully discern:</l> <pagebreak page_no="34"/> <l>They make the plan of every verb quite plain,</l> <l>And students reap the most consummate gain.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Five <italic>moods</italic> the learn'd, in general, do hold;</l> <l>(That boys should learn them they need not be told.)</l> <l>Th' <italic>indicative</italic>, <italic>potential</italic>, <italic>subjunctive</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Imperative</italic>, and the <italic>infinitive</italic>,</l> <l>Comprise them all, as you will soon perceive.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"> <paragraph type="footnote">A <small_caps>mood</small_caps> or <small_caps>mode</small_caps> (from the Latin <italic>modus</italic>, a manner) is a particular form of the verb, pointing out the manners in which the <italic>being</italic>, <italic>action</italic>, or <italic>passion</italic> is represented.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">There are generally reckoned five moods; viz. the <italic>indicative</italic>, <italic>potential</italic>, <italic>subjunctive</italic>, <italic>imperative</italic>, and <italic>infinitive</italic>. These, words, or names of the moods, are derived from the Latin, <italic>indicativus</italic>, showing or affirming; <italic>potentialis</italic>, existing in possibility, having the power of; <italic>subjunctivus</italic>, subjoined; <italic>imperativus</italic>, commanding; and <italic>infinitivus</italic>, affirming. Hence,</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The <italic>indicative mood</italic> simply indicates, shows, affirms, or declares a thing; as, <italic>I love</italic>; or it asks a question, as, <italic>Do I love?</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The <italic>potential mood</italic> implies possibility, or liberty, power, will, or obligation; as, <italic>I may love</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The <italic>subjunctive mood</italic> represents a thing under a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c.; and is preceded by a conjunction; as, <italic>if</italic> or <italic>though I love</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The <italic>imperative mood</italic> is used for commanding, exhorting, intreating, or permitting; as, <italic>love thou</italic>, or <italic>do thou love</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The <italic>infinitive mood</italic> expresses or affirms a thing in a general or unlimited manner, without any distinction of number or person; as, <italic>to love</italic>.</paragraph></footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>Three times</italic> we in the English language know,</l> <l>As <italic>present</italic>, <italic>past</italic>, and <italic>future</italic> clearly show.</l> <l>The <italic>present</italic>, <italic>love</italic>; the <italic>past</italic>, <italic>have loved</italic> does make;</l> <l>And the <italic>first future</italic>, <italic>shall</italic> or <italic>will</italic> does take.</l> <l>To these <italic>three</italic> other <italic>times</italic> put in a claim,</l> <l>These we shall first enumerate by name:</l> <l>Th' <italic>imperfect past</italic> assumes <italic>did love</italic> or <italic>loved</italic>;</l> <l>But <italic>more than past</italic> we find to be <italic>had loved</italic>.</l> <l>The <italic>second future</italic> we shall find appear</l> <l>In <italic>shall</italic> or <italic>will have loved</italic>: this is most clear.<footnote indicator="Dagger"><paragraph type="footnote"><small_caps>Time</small_caps> or <small_caps>tense</small_caps> (from the Latin word <italic>tempus</italic>, which signifies <italic>time</italic>) is the distinction of time, and might seem only to admit the <italic>present</italic>, which is the verb itself; as, <italic>I love</italic>; the past, as, <italic>I have loved</italic>; and the future, as, <italic>I shall</italic> or <italic>will love</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">But the times or tenses are usually made five or six; which last number we shall adopt: these are,</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">1. The <italic>present time</italic>, which represents an action or event as doing or passing at the time in which it is mentioned, without any other limitation; as, <italic>I love</italic>, or <italic>I do love</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">2. The <italic>imperfectly past time</italic> represents the action or event, either as past and completed, or as remaining unfinished at a certain time past; as, <italic>I loved</italic>, or <italic>was then loving</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">3. The <italic>past</italic>, or <italic>perfect</italic>, or <italic>perfectly past time</italic>, represents the action as completely finished, and not only refers to what is past or finished, but also conveys an allusion to the present time; as, <italic>I have loved</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">4. The <italic>more than past time</italic>, or <italic>pluperfect tense</italic>, represents the action, not only as past or finished, but also as finished before some other point of time specified in the sentence; as, <italic>I had loved</italic>. Some grammarians distinguish the three past times by the names of the <italic>first</italic>, <italic>second</italic>, and <italic>third preterites</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">5. The <italic>first future time</italic>, or <italic>future imperfectly past</italic>, represents the action as yet to come, either with or without respect to the precise time when; as, <italic>I shall</italic> or <italic>will love</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">6. The <italic>second future time</italic>, or <italic>future perfectly past</italic>, represents the action as yet to come, intimating that it will be fully accomplished, at or before the time of another future action or event; as, <italic>I shall have loved</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">It may be necessary to observe that the two first of the above times or tenses, viz. the present and the imperfectly past, are called simple times, the former being the verb itself in its most simple or original form, and the latter being made by the addition of <italic>d</italic> or <italic>ed</italic> to the former; so that they are formed of the verb itself, without the assistance of any other verb. The four last, viz: the past or perfect, the more than past, and the first and second future times, are called compound times, because they cannot be formed without the assistance of some other verb as an auxiliary.</paragraph></footnote></l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="35"/> <paragraph> The <italic>personal pronouns</italic> persons do express; As, <italic>I</italic>, <italic>thou</italic>, <italic>he</italic>; <italic>we</italic>, <italic>ye</italic>, and <italic>they</italic> confess. With these their various endings too agree, As we by <italic>love</italic>, <italic>lovest</italic>, and <italic>loves</italic> may see.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">There are three persons both in the singular and plural numbers of verbs, which are the personal pronouns placed before the verb; as, <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">First person</cell> <cell role="data">I love <italic>or</italic> do love,</cell> <cell role="data">We love <italic>or</italic> do love.</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Second person</cell> <cell role="data">Thou lovest <italic>or</italic> dost love,</cell> <cell role="data">Ye love <italic>or</italic> do love.</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Third person</cell> <cell role="data">He loves <italic>or</italic> does love,</cell> <cell role="data">They love <italic>or</italic> do love.</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph></footnote> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="36"/> <paragraph> <l>The <italic>participle</italic> from the verb’s derived,</l> <l>But like an <italic>adjective</italic> appears contrived.</l> <l>These <italic>being, doing, suffering, time</italic>, imply,</l> <l>Like verbs, but show indeed a quality.</l> <l>Some end in <italic>ing</italic>, and some in <italic>n, t, d</italic>;</l> <l>As <italic>loving, roving, slain, taught, lov'd</italic>; we see:</l> <l>Thus, <italic>loving woman</italic>, and <italic>a swelling main</italic>,</l> <l><italic>A well taught boy, lov'd girl, a bullock slain</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><small_caps>Nine Auxiliaries</small_caps> are of general use,</l> <l>And various meanings in the rest produce;</l> <l><italic>Do</italic>, <italic>will</italic>, and <italic>shall</italic>, <italic>must</italic>, <italic>ought</italic>, and <italic>may</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Have</italic>, <italic>am</italic>, or <italic>be</italic>, this doctrine will display.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">The auxiliaries will be conjugated hereafter.</footnote></l> <l>For these necessity, or power, or will,</l> <l>And time, or duty, are expressing still.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>Do</italic> does the present time with force express,</l> <l>And <italic>did</italic> imperfect past shows with no less.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>Will</italic> is the present, <italic>would</italic> imperfect past,</l> <l>But when before some other verbs they're cast,</l> <l>The future time by both is well express'd.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>The same rule holds of <italic>shall</italic> and <italic>should</italic>, we know,</l> <l>And each the future time as well doth show.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>In the first person simply <italic>shall</italic> foretels;</l> <l>In <italic>will</italic> a threat or else a promise dwells.</l> <l><italic>Shall</italic> in the second and the third does threat;</l> <l><italic>Will</italic> simply then foretels the future feat.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>The <italic>future time</italic> does absolutely note</l> <l>Both <italic>shall</italic> and <italic>will</italic>; but <italic>would</italic> and <italic>should</italic> do not,</l> <l>But with condition, future time express;</l> <l>Which difference they every where confess.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>May</italic> does the right or possibility,</l> <l>And <italic>can</italic> the agent's power to do, imply.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Whenever <italic>have</italic> possession does denote,</l> <l>These verbs it doth admit, else it does not.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Both <italic>am</italic> and <italic>be</italic> do in their native sense</l> <l>Being import; but then they do dispense</l> <l>The verb connected to the adjective,</l> <l>That <italic>suff'ring</italic> we most readily perceive.</l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="37"/> <paragraph> <l>Where’er these helping verbs a verb precede,</l> <l>The endings of the following have no need</l> <l>To change at all; but those must vary still,</l> <l>The use of personal endings to fulfil.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>But when the <italic>present</italic> ends in <italic>d</italic> or <italic>t</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Imperfect past</italic> the same we always see.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">As, <italic>present time</italic>, I spread; <italic>imperfectly past</italic>, I spread; <italic>present</italic>, I slit; <italic>imperfect</italic>, I slit.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Other exceptions to this rule we find,</l> <l>Which to a future list will be consign'd.<footnote indicator="Dagger">These will be given in our observations on irregular verbs, after the examples of verbs conjugated regularly.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Whene'er two verbs we find together braced,</l> <l><italic>To</italic> hath between its station always placed.<footnote indicator="Double Dagger">As, <italic>I love to read</italic>. <italic>I dare fight</italic>, for <italic>I dare to fight</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <div3 description="main_text" name="The Conjugation of Verbs"> <heading level="3">THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS.</heading> <paragraph>Previously to our giving examples of the conjugation or inflexions of verbs, we must observe that there are three kinds of them, namely, <small_caps>Active</small_caps>, <small_caps>Passive</small_caps>, and <small_caps>Neuter</small_caps>.</paragraph> <paragraph>An Active verb denotes an action, and necessarily supposes an agent, and an object acted upon; as,<italic>I love; I love Caroline</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph>A Passive verb denotes passion or suffering, or the receiving of an impression; and necessarily supposes an object upon which the impression is made, and an agent by whom it is made; as, <italic>I am loved; Caroline is loved by me</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph>A Neuter verb denotes being, or a state or condition of being, when the agent and the object acted upon coincide, and the event is properly neither action nor passion, but rather something between both; as, <italic>I am, I sit, I stand</italic>.</paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="38"/> <paragraph>An Active verb is sometimes called <italic>transitive</italic>, because the action <italic>passes over</italic>, as it were, to the object, or has an effect upon some other thing; as, <italic>I love Maria</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph>In a Neuter verb the action does not <italic>pass over</italic> to the object, but is wholly confined to the agent; as, <italic>I walk, I run</italic>: it is therefore called <italic>intransitive</italic>.</paragraph> </div3> <div3 description="main_text" name="The Auxiliary or Helping Verb TO HAVE"> <heading level="3"><italic>The Auxiliary or Helping Verb</italic> TO HAVE.</heading> <paragraph> <heading level="4"><small_caps>Indicative Mood</small_caps></heading> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Present Time</small_caps> or <small_caps>Tense</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1st pers.</cell> <cell role="data">I have</cell> <cell role="data">We have</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2nd pers.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou hast</cell> <cell role="data">Ye have</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3rd pers.</cell> <cell role="data">He, she, <italic>or</italic> it has <italic>or</italic> hath</cell> <cell role="data">They have</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I had</cell> <cell role="data">We had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou hadst <italic>or</italic> hast had</cell> <cell role="data">Ye had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He <ed_note type="omission">has</ed_note> had</cell> <cell role="data">They had</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Perfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I have had</cell> <cell role="data">We have had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou hast had</cell> <cell role="data">Ye have had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He has had</cell> <cell role="data">They have had</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>More than Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I had had</cell> <cell role="data">We had had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou hadst had</cell> <cell role="data">Ye had had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He had had</cell> <cell role="data">They had had</cell> </row> </table> <pagebreak page_no="39"/> <heading level="5"><small_caps>First Future</small_caps>, or <small_caps>Future Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I shall <italic>or</italic> will have</cell> <cell role="data">We shall <italic>or</italic> will have</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou shalt <italic>or</italic> wilt have</cell> <cell role="data">Ye shall <italic>or</italic> will have</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He shall <italic>or</italic> will have</cell> <cell role="data">They shall <italic>or</italic> will have</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Second Future</small_caps>, or <small_caps>Future Perfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I shall <italic>or</italic> will have had</cell> <cell role="data">We shall <italic>or</italic> will have had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou shalt <italic>or</italic> wilt have had</cell> <cell role="data">Ye shall <italic>or</italic> will have had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell>He shall <italic>or</italic> will have had</cell> <cell>They shall <italic>or</italic> will have had</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="4"><small_caps>Potential Mood</small_caps></heading> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Present</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I may <italic>or</italic> can have</cell> <cell role="data">We may <italic>or</italic> can have</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou mayst <italic>or</italic> canst have</cell> <cell role="data">Ye may <italic>or</italic> can have</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He may <italic>or</italic> can have</cell> <cell role="data">They may <italic>or</italic> can have</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I might, could, would, <italic>or</italic> should have</cell> <cell role="data">We might, could, would, <italic>or</italic> should have</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou mightst, &c. have</cell> <cell role="data">Ye might, &c., have</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell>He might, &c., have</cell> <cell>They might, &c., have</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Perfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I may <italic>or</italic> can have had</cell> <cell role="data">We may <italic>or</italic> can have had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou mayst <italic>or</italic> canst have had</cell> <cell role="data">Ye may <italic>or</italic> can have had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He may <italic>or</italic> can have had</cell> <cell role="data">They may <italic>or</italic> can have had</cell> </row> </table> <pagebreak page_no="40"/> <heading level="5"><small_caps>More than Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I might, &c., have had</cell> <cell role="data">We might, &c., have had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou mightst, &c., have had</cell> <cell role="data">Ye might, &c., have had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He might, &c., have had</cell> <cell role="data">They might, &c., have had</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="4"><small_caps>Subjunctive Mood</small_caps></heading> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Present</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I have</cell> <cell role="data">If we have</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou have</cell> <cell role="data">If ye have</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he have</cell> <cell role="data">If they have</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I had</cell> <cell role="data">If we had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou had</cell> <cell role="data">If ye had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he had</cell> <cell role="data">If they had</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Perfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I have had</cell> <cell role="data">If we have had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou have had</cell> <cell role="data">If ye have had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he have had</cell> <cell role="data">If they have had</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>More than Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I had had</cell> <cell role="data">If we had had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou had had</cell> <cell role="data">If ye had had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he had had</cell> <cell role="data">If they had had</cell> </row> </table> <pagebreak page_no="41"/> <heading level="5"><small_caps>First Future</small_caps>, or <small_caps>Future Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I shall <italic>or</italic> will have</cell> <cell role="data">If we shall <italic>or</italic> will have</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou shalt <italic>or</italic> wilt have</cell> <cell role="data">If ye shall <italic>or</italic> will have</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he shall <italic>or</italic> will have</cell> <cell role="data">If they shall <italic>or</italic> will have</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Second Future</small_caps>, or <small_caps>Future Perfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I shall <italic>or</italic> will have had</cell> <cell role="data">If we shall <italic>or</italic> will have had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou shalt <italic>or</italic> wilt have had</cell> <cell role="data">If ye shall <italic>or</italic> will have had</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he shall <italic>or</italic> will have had</cell> <cell role="data">If they shall <italic>or</italic> will have had</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="4">Imperative Mood</heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data"><ed_note type="addition">Let me have</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Let us have</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Have thou, <italic>or</italic> do thou have</cell> <cell role="data">Have ye, <italic>or</italic> do ye have</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">Let him have</cell> <cell role="data">Let them have</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="4">Infinitive Mood</heading> <table cols="2" rows="2"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Present</cell> <cell>Past</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>To have</cell> <cell>To have had</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="4">Participles</heading> <table cols="3" rows="2"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Present</cell> <cell>Past</cell> <cell>Compound Past</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Having</cell> <cell>Had</cell> <cell>Having had</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> </div3> <pagebreak page_no="42"/> <div3 description="main_text" name="The Auxiliary or Helping Verb TO BE"> <heading level="3"><italic>The Auxiliary Verb</italic> TO BE.</heading> <paragraph> <heading level="4"><small_caps>Indicative Mood</small_caps></heading> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Present</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I am</cell> <cell role="data">We are</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou art</cell> <cell role="data">Ye are</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He, she, <italic>or</italic> it is</cell> <cell role="data">They are</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I was</cell> <cell role="data">We were</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou wast</cell> <cell role="data">Ye were</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He was</cell> <cell role="data">They were</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Perfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I have been</cell> <cell role="data">We have been</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou hast been</cell> <cell role="data">Ye have been</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He has been</cell> <cell role="data">They have been</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>More than Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I had been</cell> <cell role="data">We had been</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou hadst been</cell> <cell role="data">Ye had been</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He had been</cell> <cell role="data">They had been</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>First Future</small_caps>, or <small_caps>Future Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I shall <italic>or</italic> will be</cell> <cell role="data">We shall <italic>or</italic> will be</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou shalt <italic>or</italic> wilt be</cell> <cell role="data">Ye shall <italic>or</italic> will be</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He shall <italic>or</italic> will be</cell> <cell role="data">They shall <italic>or</italic> will be</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Second Future</small_caps>, or <small_caps>Future Perfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I shall <italic>or</italic> will have been</cell> <cell role="data">We shall <italic>or</italic> will have been</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou shalt <italic>or</italic> wilt have been</cell> <cell role="data">Ye shall <italic>or</italic> will have been</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell>He shall <italic>or</italic> will have been</cell> <cell>They shall <italic>or</italic> will have been</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="43"/> <paragraph> <heading level="4"><small_caps>Potential Mood</small_caps></heading> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Present</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I may <italic>or</italic> can be</cell> <cell role="data">We may <italic>or</italic> can be</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou mayst <italic>or</italic> canst be</cell> <cell role="data">Ye may <italic>or</italic> can be</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He may <italic>or</italic> can be</cell> <cell role="data">They may <italic>or</italic> can be</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I might, could, would, <italic>or</italic> should be</cell> <cell role="data">We might, could, would, <italic>or</italic> should be</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou mightst, &c. be</cell> <cell role="data">Ye might, &c., be</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell>He might, &c., be</cell> <cell>They might, &c., be</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Perfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I may <italic>or</italic> can have been</cell> <cell role="data">We may <italic>or</italic> can have been</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou mayst <italic>or</italic> canst have been</cell> <cell role="data">Ye may <italic>or</italic> can have been</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He may <italic>or</italic> can have been</cell> <cell role="data">They may <italic>or</italic> can have been</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>More than Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I might, could, would, <italic>or</italic> should have been</cell> <cell role="data">We might, &c., have been</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou mightst, &c., have been</cell> <cell role="data">Ye might, &c., have been</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He might, &c., have been</cell> <cell role="data">They might, &c., have been</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="4">Imperative Mood</heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data"><ed_note type="addition">Let me be</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Let us be</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Be thou <italic>or</italic> do thou be</cell> <cell role="data">Be ye <italic>or</italic> do ye be</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">Let him be</cell> <cell role="data">Let them be</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="44"/> <paragraph> <heading level="4"><small_caps>Subjunctive Mood</small_caps></heading> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Present</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I be</cell> <cell role="data">If we be</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou be</cell> <cell role="data">If ye be</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he be</cell> <cell role="data">If they be</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I were</cell> <cell role="data">If we were</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou were</cell> <cell role="data">If ye were</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he were</cell> <cell role="data">If they were</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Perfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I have been</cell> <cell role="data">If we have been</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou hast been</cell> <cell role="data">If ye have been</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he have been</cell> <cell role="data">If they have been</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>More than Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I had been</cell> <cell role="data">If we had been</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou hadst been</cell> <cell role="data">If ye had been</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he had been</cell> <cell role="data">If they had been</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>First Future</small_caps>, or <small_caps>Future Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I shall <italic>or</italic> will be</cell> <cell role="data">If we shall <italic>or</italic> will be</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou shalt <italic>or</italic> wilt be</cell> <cell role="data">If ye shall <italic>or</italic> will be</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he shall <italic>or</italic> will be</cell> <cell role="data">If they shall <italic>or</italic> will be</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Second Future</small_caps>, or <small_caps>Future Perfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I shall <italic>or</italic> will have been</cell> <cell role="data">If we shall <italic>or</italic> will have been</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou shalt <italic>or</italic> wilt have been</cell> <cell role="data">If ye shall <italic>or</italic> will have been</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he shall <italic>or</italic> will have been</cell> <cell role="data">If they shall <italic>or</italic> will have been</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="45"/> <paragraph> <heading level="4">Infinitive Mood</heading> <table cols="2" rows="2"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Present</cell> <cell>Past</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>To be</cell> <cell>To have been</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="4">Participles</heading> <table cols="3" rows="2"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Present</cell> <cell>Past</cell> <cell>Compound Past</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Being</cell> <cell>Been</cell> <cell>Having been</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> </div3> <div3 description="main_text" name="INFLECTION OF THE OTHER AUXILIARY VERBS IN THEIR SIMPLE FORMS"> <heading level="3">INFLECTION OF THE OTHER AUXILIARY VERBS IN THEIR SIMPLE FORMS.</heading> <paragraph>It will be easily perceived that the preceding auxiliary verbs, <italic>to have</italic> and <italic>to be</italic>, could not be inflected or conjugated through all the moods and tenses, without the assistance of other auxiliaries, or helping verbs.</paragraph> <paragraph>That auxiliary verbs, in their simple form, and unassisted by others, are of very limited extent, and principally useful from the aid which they afford in inflecting other verbs, will clearly appear to every discerning person by a distinct inflection of each of them, uncombined with any other, thus:</paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="4">TO DO.</heading> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Indicative Mood.</small_caps></heading> <heading level="6"><small_caps>Present Tense.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I do</cell> <cell role="data">We do</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou dost <italic>or</italic> doest</cell> <cell role="data">Ye do</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He doth <italic>or</italic> does</cell> <cell role="data">They do</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I did</cell> <cell role="data">We did</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou didst</cell> <cell role="data">Ye did</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He did</cell> <cell role="data">They did</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="46"/> <paragraph> <heading level="4">WILL.</heading> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Indicative Mood.</small_caps></heading> <heading level="6"><small_caps>Present Time.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I will</cell> <cell role="data">We will</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou wilt</cell> <cell role="data">Ye will</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He will</cell> <cell role="data">They will</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I would</cell> <cell role="data">We would</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou wouldst</cell> <cell role="data">Ye would</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He would</cell> <cell role="data">They would</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="4">SHALL.</heading> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Indicative Mood.</small_caps></heading> <heading level="6"><small_caps>Present Time.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I shall</cell> <cell role="data">We shall</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou shalt</cell> <cell role="data">Ye shall</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He shall</cell> <cell role="data">They shall</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I should</cell> <cell role="data">We should</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou shouldst</cell> <cell role="data">Ye should</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He should</cell> <cell role="data">They should</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="4">MUST.</heading> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Indicative Mood.</small_caps></heading> <heading level="6"><small_caps>Present Time.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I must</cell> <cell role="data">We must</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou must</cell> <cell role="data">Ye must</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He must</cell> <cell role="data">They must</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="47"/> <paragraph> <heading level="4">OUGHT.</heading> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Indicative Mood.</small_caps></heading> <heading level="6"><small_caps>Present Time.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I ought</cell> <cell role="data">We ought</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou oughtest</cell> <cell role="data">Ye ought</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He ought</cell> <cell role="data">They ought</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="4">MAY.</heading> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Indicative Mood.</small_caps></heading> <heading level="6"><small_caps>Present Time.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I may</cell> <cell role="data">We may</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou mayst</cell> <cell role="data">Ye may</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He may</cell> <cell role="data">They may</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I might</cell> <cell role="data">We might</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou mightst</cell> <cell role="data">Ye might</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He might</cell> <cell role="data">They might</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="4">CAN.</heading> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Indicative Mood.</small_caps></heading> <heading level="6"><small_caps>Present Time.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I can</cell> <cell role="data">We can</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou canst</cell> <cell role="data">Ye can</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He can</cell> <cell role="data">They can</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I could</cell> <cell role="data">We could</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou couldst</cell> <cell role="data">Ye could</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He could</cell> <cell role="data">They could</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph>The foregoing verbs, <italic>have</italic>, <italic>be</italic>, <italic>will</italic>, and <italic>do</italic>, when unconnected with a principal verb, expressed or understood, <pagebreak page_no="48"/>are not auxiliaries, but principal verbs; and in this view they have also their auxiliaries; as, <italic>I</italic> shall have <italic>sufficient</italic>; <italic>I</italic> will be <italic>grateful</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph><italic>Do</italic> and <italic>did</italic> mark the action itself, or the time of it, with greater energy; as, <italic>I</italic> do <italic>speak the truth</italic>. <italic>I</italic> did <italic>respect him</italic>. They are also of use in interrogative and negative sentences; as, Did <italic>you write</italic>? <italic>You</italic> did <italic>not write</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph><italic>Will</italic>, in the first person singular and plural, intimates resolution and promising; in the second and third persons it only foretels.</paragraph> <paragraph><italic>Shall</italic>, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretels; but in the second and third persons it promises, commands, or threatens; as, <italic>I shall go; We shall sup at nine; Thou shalt go; Ye shall do justly; They shall pay for the mischief they did; He shall smart for his misconduct</italic>. These observations relate to explicative sentences; but when the sentence is interrogative, the reverse, for the most part, takes place: thus, <italic>I</italic> shall <italic>go</italic>; <italic>Ye</italic> will <italic>go</italic>; express event only: but Will <italic>ye go</italic>? imports intention: and Shall <italic>I go</italic>? refers to the will of another. <italic>He</italic> shall <italic>go</italic>, and Shall <italic>he go</italic>? both imply <italic>will</italic>, expressing or referring to a command.</paragraph> <paragraph><italic>Must</italic> is sometimes adopted as an auxiliary, and denotes necessity; as, <italic>We</italic> must <italic>speak the truth, and</italic> must <italic>not prevaricate</italic>. Neither <italic>must</italic> nor <italic>ought</italic> admits of any variation.</paragraph> <paragraph><italic>Ought</italic> seems to imply a kind of duty; as, <italic>We</italic> ought <italic>to tell the truth, and</italic> ought <italic>not to prevaricate</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph><italic>May</italic> and <italic>might</italic> express the possibility or liberty of doing a thing; but <italic>can</italic> and <italic>could</italic> express the power or capacity of doing it.</paragraph> </div3> <pagebreak page_no="49"/> <div3 description="main_text" name="The Conjugation of Regular Verbs"> <heading level="3">THE CONJUGATION OF REGULAR VERBS.</heading> <paragraph>A Regular Active Verb is conjugated as follows:</paragraph> <heading level="4">TO LOVE.</heading> <paragraph> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Indicative Mood.</small_caps></heading> <heading level="6"><small_caps>Present.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I love <italic>or</italic> do love</cell> <cell role="data">We love</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou lovest <italic>or</italic> dost love</cell> <cell role="data">Ye love</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He, she, <italic>or</italic> it loveth <italic>or</italic> does love</cell> <cell role="data">They love</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="6"><small_caps>Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I loved <italic>or</italic> did love</cell> <cell role="data">We loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou lovedst <italic>or</italic> did love</cell> <cell role="data">Ye loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He, she, <italic>or</italic> it loved <italic>or</italic> did love</cell> <cell role="data">They loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="6"><small_caps>Perfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I have loved</cell> <cell role="data">We have loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou hast loved</cell> <cell role="data">Ye have loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He hath <italic>or</italic> has loved</cell> <cell role="data">They have loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="6"><small_caps>More than Past.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I had loved</cell> <cell role="data">We had loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou hadst loved</cell> <cell role="data">Ye had loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He had loved</cell> <cell role="data">They had loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="6"><small_caps>First Future, or Future Imperfectly Past.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I shall <italic>or</italic> will love</cell> <cell role="data">We shall <italic>or</italic> will love</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou shalt <italic>or</italic> wilt love</cell> <cell role="data">Ye shall <italic>or</italic> will love</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He shall <italic>or</italic> will love</cell> <cell role="data">They shall <italic>or</italic> will love</cell> </row> </table> <folio folio_no="D"/> <pagebreak page_no="50"/> <heading level="6"><small_caps>Second Future, or Future Perfectly Past.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I shall <italic>or</italic> will have loved</cell> <cell role="data">We shall <italic>or</italic> will have loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou shalt <italic>or</italic> wilt have loved</cell> <cell role="data">Ye shall <italic>or</italic> will have loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He shall <italic>or</italic> will have loved</cell> <cell role="data">They shall <italic>or</italic> will have loved</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Potential Mood.</small_caps></heading> <heading level="6"><small_caps>Present Time.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I may <italic>or</italic> can love</cell> <cell role="data">We may <italic>or</italic> can love</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou mayst <italic>or</italic> canst love</cell> <cell role="data">Ye may <italic>or</italic> can love</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He may <italic>or</italic> can love</cell> <cell role="data">They may <italic>or</italic> can love</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="6"><small_caps>Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I might, could, would, <italic>or</italic> should love</cell> <cell role="data">We might, &c., love</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou mightst, &c., love</cell> <cell role="data">Ye might, &c., love</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell>He might, &c., love</cell> <cell>They might, &c., love</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="6"><small_caps>Perfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I may <italic>or</italic> can have loved</cell> <cell role="data">We may, &c., have loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou mayst, &c., have loved</cell> <cell role="data">Ye may, &c., have loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He may, &c., have loved</cell> <cell role="data">They may, &c., have loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="6"><small_caps>More than Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I might, could, would, <italic>or</italic> should have loved</cell> <cell role="data">We might, &c., have loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou mightst, &c., have loved</cell> <cell role="data">Ye might, &c., have loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He might, &c., have loved</cell> <cell role="data">They might, &c., have loved</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="51"/> <paragraph> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Subjunctive Mood</small_caps></heading> <heading level="6"><small_caps>Present Time</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I love</cell> <cell role="data">If we love</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou love</cell> <cell role="data">If ye love</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he love</cell> <cell role="data">If they love</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="6"><small_caps>Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I loved</cell> <cell role="data">If we loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou loved</cell> <cell role="data">If ye loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he loved</cell> <cell role="data">If they loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="6"><small_caps>Perfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I have loved</cell> <cell role="data">If we have loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou have loved</cell> <cell role="data">If ye have loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he have loved</cell> <cell role="data">If they have loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="6"><small_caps>More than Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I had loved</cell> <cell role="data">If we had loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou hadst loved</cell> <cell role="data">If ye had loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he had loved</cell> <cell role="data">If they had loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="6"><small_caps>First Future</small_caps>, or <small_caps>Future Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I shall <italic>or</italic> will love</cell> <cell role="data">If we shall <italic>or</italic> will love</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou shalt <italic>or</italic> wilt love</cell> <cell role="data">If ye shall <italic>or</italic> will love</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he shall <italic>or</italic> will love</cell> <cell role="data">If they shall <italic>or</italic> will love</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="6"><small_caps>Second Future</small_caps>, or <small_caps>Future Perfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I shall <italic>or</italic> will have loved</cell> <cell role="data">If we shall <italic>or</italic> will have loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou shalt <italic>or</italic> wilt have loved</cell> <cell role="data">If ye shall <italic>or</italic> will have loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he shall <italic>or</italic> will have loved</cell> <cell role="data">If they shall <italic>or</italic> will have loved</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <folio folio_no="D2"/> <pagebreak page_no="52"/> <paragraph> <heading level="5">Imperative Mood</heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data"><ed_note type="addition">Let me love</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Let us love</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Love thou <italic>or</italic> do thou love</cell> <cell role="data">Love ye <italic>or</italic> do ye love</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">Let him love</cell> <cell role="data">Let them love</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="5">Infinitive Mood</heading> <table cols="2" rows="2"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Present</cell> <cell>Past</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>To love</cell> <cell>To have loved</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="5">Participial Forms</heading> <table cols="3" rows="2"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Present</cell> <cell>Past</cell> <cell>Compound Past</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Loving</cell> <cell>Loved</cell> <cell>Having loved</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> </div3> <div3 description="main_text" name="Alternative Conjugation with Auxiliary and Active Participle"> <paragraph><small_caps>Observations.</small_caps> An active verb may, however, be otherwise conjugated or inflected, by adding its present or active particle to the auxiliary verb <italic>to be</italic>; through all its moods and tenses or times, according to the following plan, in which we shall lay before the student the singular and plural of each of the times of the indicative mood, as a pattern for the rest. Thus:</paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="4"><small_caps>Indicative Mood.</small_caps></heading> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Present.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I am loving</cell> <cell role="data">We are loving</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou art loving</cell> <cell role="data">Ye are loving</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He <italic>or</italic> she is loving</cell> <cell role="data">They are loving</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Imperfectly Past.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I was loving</cell> <cell role="data">We were loving</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou wast loving</cell> <cell role="data">Ye were loving</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He was loving</cell> <cell role="data">They were loving</cell> </row> </table> <pagebreak page_no="53"/> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Perfectly Past.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I have been loving</cell> <cell role="data">We have been loving</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou hast been loving</cell> <cell role="data">Ye have been loving</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He has been loving</cell> <cell role="data">They have been loving</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>More than Past.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I had been loving</cell> <cell role="data">We had been loving</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou hadst been loving</cell> <cell role="data">Ye had been loving</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He had been loving</cell> <cell role="data">They had been loving</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>First Future, or Future Imperfectly Past.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I shall <italic>or</italic> will be loving</cell> <cell role="data">We shall <italic>or</italic> will be loving</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou shalt <italic>or</italic> wilt be loving</cell> <cell role="data">Ye shall <italic>or</italic> will be loving</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He shall <italic>or</italic> will be loving</cell> <cell role="data">They shall <italic>or</italic> will be loving</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Second Future, or Future Perfectly Past.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I shall <italic>or</italic> will have been loving</cell> <cell role="data">We shall <italic>or</italic> will have been loving</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou shalt <italic>or</italic> wilt have been loving</cell> <cell role="data">Ye shall <italic>or</italic> will have been loving</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He shall <italic>or</italic> will have been loving</cell> <cell role="data">They shall <italic>or</italic> will have been loving</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph>And after the same manner throughout the other moods and tenses or times. This method of conjugation has, on particular occasions, a peculiar propriety, and greatly contributes to the harmony and precision of the language.</paragraph> </div3> <pagebreak page_no="54"/> <div3 description="main_text" name="Inflection of the Regular Passive Verb"> <heading level="3">The <small_caps>Regular Passive Verb</small_caps> is thus inflected: TO BE LOVED.</heading> <paragraph> <heading level="4"><small_caps>Indicative Mood</small_caps></heading> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Present</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I am loved</cell> <cell role="data">We are loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou art loved</cell> <cell role="data">Ye are loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He is loved</cell> <cell role="data">They are loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I was loved</cell> <cell role="data">We were loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou wast loved</cell> <cell role="data">Ye were loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He was loved</cell> <cell role="data">They were loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Perfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I have been loved</cell> <cell role="data">We have been loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou hast been loved</cell> <cell role="data">Ye have been loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He has been loved</cell> <cell role="data">They have been loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>More than Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I had been loved</cell> <cell role="data">We had been loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou hadst been loved</cell> <cell role="data">Ye had been loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He had been loved</cell> <cell role="data">They had been loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>First Future, or Future Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I shall <italic>or</italic> will be loved</cell> <cell role="data">We shall <italic>or</italic> will be loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou shalt <italic>or</italic> wilt be loved</cell> <cell role="data">Ye shall <italic>or</italic> will be loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He shall <italic>or</italic> will be loved</cell> <cell role="data">They shall <italic>or</italic> will be loved</cell> </row> </table> <pagebreak page_no="55"/> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Second Future, or Future Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I shall <italic>or</italic> will have been loved</cell> <cell role="data">We shall <italic>or</italic> will have been loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou shalt <italic>or</italic> wilt have been loved</cell> <cell role="data">Ye shall <italic>or</italic> will have been loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He shall <italic>or</italic> will have been loved</cell> <cell role="data">They shall <italic>or</italic> will have been loved</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="4"><small_caps>Potential Mood</small_caps></heading> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Present</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I may <italic>or</italic> can be loved</cell> <cell role="data">We may <italic>or</italic> can be loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou mayst <italic>or</italic> canst be loved</cell> <cell role="data">Ye may <italic>or</italic> can be loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He may <italic>or</italic> can be loved</cell> <cell role="data">They may <italic>or</italic> can be loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I might, could, would, <italic>or</italic> should be loved</cell> <cell role="data">We might, &c. be loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou mightst, &c. be loved</cell> <cell role="data">Ye might, &c. be loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He might, &c. be loved</cell> <cell role="data">They might, &c. be loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Perfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I may <italic>or</italic> can have been loved</cell> <cell role="data">We may <italic>or</italic> can have been loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou mayst <italic>or</italic> canst have been loved</cell> <cell role="data">Ye may <italic>or</italic> can have been loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He may <italic>or</italic> can have been loved</cell> <cell role="data">They may <italic>or</italic> can have been loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>More than Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I might, could, would, <italic>or</italic> should have been loved</cell> <cell role="data">We might, &c. have been loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou mightst, &c. have been loved</cell> <cell role="data">Ye might, &c. have been loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He might, &c. have been loved</cell> <cell role="data">They might, &c. have been loved</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="56"/> <paragraph> <heading level="4"><small_caps>Subjunctive Mood</small_caps></heading> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Present</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I be loved</cell> <cell role="data">If we be loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou be loved</cell> <cell role="data">If ye be loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he be loved</cell> <cell role="data">If they be loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I were loved</cell> <cell role="data">If we were loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou wert loved</cell> <cell role="data">If ye were loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he were loved</cell> <cell role="data">If they were loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Perfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I have been loved</cell> <cell role="data">If we have been loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou have been loved</cell> <cell role="data">If ye have been loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he has been loved</cell> <cell role="data">If they have been loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>More than Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I had been loved</cell> <cell role="data">If we had been loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou had been loved</cell> <cell role="data">If ye had been loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he had been loved</cell> <cell role="data">If they had been loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>First Future</small_caps>, or <small_caps>Future Imperfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I shall <italic>or</italic> will be loved</cell> <cell role="data">If we shall <italic>or</italic> will be loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou shalt <italic>or</italic> wilt be loved</cell> <cell role="data">If ye shall <italic>or</italic> will be loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he shall <italic>or</italic> will be loved</cell> <cell role="data">If they shall <italic>or</italic> will be loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Second Future</small_caps>, or <small_caps>Future Perfectly Past</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">If I shall <italic>or</italic> will have been loved</cell> <cell role="data">If we shall <italic>or</italic> will have been loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">If thou shalt <italic>or</italic> wilt have been loved</cell> <cell role="data">If ye shall <italic>or</italic> will have been loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">If he shall <italic>or</italic> will have been loved</cell> <cell role="data">If they shall <italic>or</italic> will have been loved</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="57"/> <paragraph> <heading level="4"><small_caps>Imperative Mood</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell>Singular</cell> <cell>Plural</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data"><ed_note type="addition">Let me be loved</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Let us be loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Be thou loved, <italic>or</italic> do thou be loved</cell> <cell role="data">Be ye loved, <italic>or</italic> do ye be loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">Let him be loved</cell> <cell role="data">Let them be loved</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="4"><small_caps>Infinitive Mood</small_caps></heading> <table cols="2" rows="2"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Present</cell> <cell>Past</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>To be loved</cell> <cell>To have been loved</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="4"><small_caps>Participial Forms</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="2"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Present</cell> <cell>Past</cell> <cell>Compound Past</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Being loved</cell> <cell>Loved</cell> <cell>Having been loved</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> </div3> <div3 description="main_text" name="Alternative Conjugation with Auxiliary and Active Participle"> <paragraph><small_caps>Observations.</small_caps> As the active form of a regular verb could be conjugated in a different manner from the method usually adopted, so can the passive form, agreeably to the following simple plan; that is to say, if the auxiliary <italic>to be</italic> be joined to the participle present of the principal verb in the passive form, the auxiliary will go through all the variations of mood, tense, person, and number, and the participle itself will continue invariably the same; as,</paragraph> <paragraph> <heading level="4"><small_caps>Indicative Mood.</small_caps></heading> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Present.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I am being loved</cell> <cell role="data">We are being loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou art being loved</cell> <cell role="data">Ye are being loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He is being loved</cell> <cell role="data">They are being loved</cell> </row> </table> <heading level="5"><small_caps>Imperfectly Past.</small_caps></heading> <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Singular</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Plural</ed_note></cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">1.</cell> <cell role="data">I was being loved</cell> <cell role="data">We were being loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">2.</cell> <cell role="data">Thou wast being loved</cell> <cell role="data">Ye were being loved</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">3.</cell> <cell role="data">He was being loved</cell> <cell role="data">They were being loved</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="58"/> <paragraph>Neuter verbs are conjugated like active verbs; but since they partake in some measure of the passive nature, they admit, in many instances, of the passive form.</paragraph> <paragraph>All regular verbs are inflected or conjugated like the verb <italic>to love</italic>; but in the English tongue, as in every other language, there are many irregularities, which occasion a different mode of conjugation.</paragraph> </div3> <div3 description="main_text" name="Of Irregular Verbs."> <heading level="3">OF IRREGULAR VERBS.</heading> <paragraph>Irregular verbs are such as do not form their imperfectly past time, and the participle past, by the addition of <italic>ed</italic> to the verb, but in some other manner.</paragraph> <paragraph>There are various kinds of irregular verbs; thus,</paragraph> <paragraph>1. Such as have the present and imperfectly past times, and the participle past, of a similar form; as, <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Present</cell> <cell>Imperfectly Past</cell> <cell>Perfectly Past</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Cost</cell> <cell>cost</cell> <cell>cost</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Cast</cell> <cell>cast</cell> <cell>cast</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Put</cell> <cell>put</cell> <cell>put</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph>2. Such as have the imperfectly past time and the participle past alike; as, <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Present</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Imperfectly Past</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Perfectly Past</ed_note></cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Abide</cell> <cell>abode</cell> <cell>abode</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Cling</cell> <cell>clung</cell> <cell>clung</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Sell</cell> <cell>sold</cell> <cell>sold</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph>3. Such as have the present, imperfectly past, and the participle past of a different form; as, <table cols="3" rows="4"> <row role="heading"> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Present</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Imperfectly Past</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Perfectly Past</ed_note></cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Arise</cell> <cell>arose</cell> <cell>arisen</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Blow</cell> <cell>blew</cell> <cell>blown</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Grow</cell> <cell>grew</cell> <cell>grown</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph>Many verbs become irregular by contraction; as, <italic>feed, fed; leave, left; bereave, bereft</italic>: others by the termination <italic>en</italic>; as <italic>fall, fell, fallen; chide, chid, chidden</italic>: and others by the termination <italic>ght</italic>; as, <italic>buy, bought; beseech, besought</italic>.</paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="59"/> <paragraph>The following table contains nearly a complete collection of all the irregular verbs in the English language; some of which are inflected regularly as well as irregularly, and where that is the case an R is subjoined.</paragraph> <paragraph> <table cols="3" rows="180"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Present</cell> <cell>Imperfectly Past</cell> <cell>Participle Past</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Abide</cell> <cell>abode</cell> <cell>abode</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Am</cell> <cell>was</cell> <cell>been</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Arise</cell> <cell>arose</cell> <cell>arisen</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Awake</cell> <cell>awoke, R</cell> <cell>awoke, awaked, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Bear (to bring forth)</cell> <cell>bare</cell> <cell>born</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Bear (to carry)</cell> <cell>bore</cell> <cell>borne</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Beat</cell> <cell>beat</cell> <cell>beat or beaten</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Begin</cell> <cell>began</cell> <cell>begun</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Bend</cell> <cell>bent, R</cell> <cell>bent, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Bereave</cell> <cell>bereft, R</cell> <cell>bereft, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Beseech</cell> <cell>besought, R</cell> <cell>besought, R,</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Bid</cell> <cell>bade, bad, bid</cell> <cell>bidden, bid</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Bind</cell> <cell>bound</cell> <cell>bound</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Bite</cell> <cell>bit</cell> <cell>bitten, bit</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Bleed</cell> <cell>bled</cell> <cell>bled</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Blow</cell> <cell>blew</cell> <cell>blown</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Break</cell> <cell>broke</cell> <cell>broken</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Breed</cell> <cell>bred</cell> <cell>bred</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Bring</cell> <cell>brought</cell> <cell>brought</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Build</cell> <cell>built, R</cell> <cell>built, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Burst</cell> <cell>burst</cell> <cell>burst</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Buy</cell> <cell>bought</cell> <cell>bought</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Can</cell> <cell>could</cell> <cell>-</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Cast</cell> <cell>cast</cell> <cell>cast</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Catch</cell> <cell>caught, R </cell> <cell>caught, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Chide</cell> <cell>chid</cell> <cell>chidden, chid</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Choose</cell> <cell>chose</cell> <cell>chosen</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Cleave (to adhere)</cell> <cell>clave, R </cell> <cell>cleaved</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Cleave (to split)</cell> <cell>clove or cleft</cell> <cell>cleft, cloven</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Cling</cell> <cell>clung</cell> <cell>clung</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Clothe</cell> <cell>clothed</cell> <cell>clad</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Come</cell> <cell>came</cell> <cell>come</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Cost</cell> <cell>cost</cell> <cell>cost</cell> </row> <pagebreak page_no="60"/> <row role="data"> <cell>Crow</cell> <cell>crew</cell> <cell>crowed</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Creep</cell> <cell>crept, R</cell> <cell>crept, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Cut</cell> <cell>cut</cell> <cell>cut</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Dare (to venture)</cell> <cell>durst</cell> <cell>dared</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Deal</cell> <cell>dealt, R</cell> <cell>dealt, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Die</cell> <cell>died</cell> <cell>dead</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Dig</cell> <cell>dug, R</cell> <cell>dug, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Do</cell> <cell>did</cell> <cell>done</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Draw</cell> <cell>drew</cell> <cell>drawn</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Drink</cell> <cell>drank</cell> <cell>drunk, drunken</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Drive</cell> <cell>drove</cell> <cell>driven</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Dwell</cell> <cell>dwelt, R</cell> <cell>dwelt, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Eat</cell> <cell>eat, ate</cell> <cell>eaten</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Engrave</cell> <cell>engraved</cell> <cell>engraven</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Fall</cell> <cell>fell</cell> <cell>fallen</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Feed</cell> <cell>fed</cell> <cell>fed</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Feel</cell> <cell>felt</cell> <cell>felt</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Fight</cell> <cell>fought</cell> <cell>fought</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Find</cell> <cell>found</cell> <cell>found</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Flee</cell> <cell>fled</cell> <cell>fled</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Fling</cell> <cell>flung</cell> <cell>flung</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Fly</cell> <cell>flew</cell> <cell>flown</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>forsake</cell> <cell>forsook</cell> <cell>forsaken</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Freeze</cell> <cell>froze</cell> <cell>frozen</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Get</cell> <cell>got</cell> <cell>got, gotten</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Gild</cell> <cell>gilt, R</cell> <cell>gilt, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Gird</cell> <cell>girt, R</cell> <cell>girt, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Give</cell> <cell>gave</cell> <cell>given</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Go</cell> <cell>went</cell> <cell>gone</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Grave</cell> <cell>graved</cell> <cell>graven</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Grind</cell> <cell>ground</cell> <cell>ground</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Grow</cell> <cell>grew</cell> <cell>grown</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Hang</cell> <cell>hung, R</cell> <cell>hung, hanged</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Have</cell> <cell>had</cell> <cell>-</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Hear</cell> <cell>heard</cell> <cell>heard</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Hew</cell> <cell>hewed</cell> <cell>hewn, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Hide</cell> <cell>hid</cell> <cell>hidden, hid</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Hit</cell> <cell>hit</cell> <cell>hit</cell> </row> <pagebreak page_no="61"/> <row role="data"> <cell>Hold</cell> <cell>held</cell> <cell>holden, held</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Hurt</cell> <cell>hurt</cell> <cell>hurt</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Keep</cell> <cell>kept</cell> <cell>kept</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Knit</cell> <cell>knit</cell> <cell>knit, knitted</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Know</cell> <cell>knew</cell> <cell>known</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Lade</cell> <cell>laded</cell> <cell>laden</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Lay</cell> <cell>laid</cell> <cell>laid, lain</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Lead</cell> <cell>led</cell> <cell>led</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Leave</cell> <cell>left</cell> <cell>left</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Lend</cell> <cell>lent</cell> <cell>lent</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Let</cell> <cell>let</cell> <cell>let</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Lie (to lie down)</cell> <cell>lay</cell> <cell>lain</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Load</cell> <cell>loaded</cell> <cell>laden, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Lose</cell> <cell>lost</cell> <cell>lost</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Make</cell> <cell>made</cell> <cell>made</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>May</cell> <cell>might</cell> <cell>-</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Meet</cell> <cell>met</cell> <cell>met</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Mow</cell> <cell>mowed</cell> <cell>mown</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Must</cell> <cell>- </cell> <cell>-</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Ought</cell> <cell>ought</cell> <cell>-</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Pay</cell> <cell>paid</cell> <cell>paid</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Put</cell> <cell>put</cell> <cell>put</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Read</cell> <cell>read</cell> <cell>read</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Rend</cell> <cell>rent</cell> <cell>rent</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Ride</cell> <cell>rode</cell> <cell>rode ridden</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Ring</cell> <cell>rang, rung</cell> <cell>rung</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Rise</cell> <cell>rose</cell> <cell>risen</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Rive</cell> <cell>rived</cell> <cell>riven</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Run</cell> <cell>ran</cell> <cell>run</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Saw</cell> <cell>sawed</cell> <cell>sawn, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>See</cell> <cell>saw</cell> <cell>seen</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Say</cell> <cell>said</cell> <cell>said</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Seek</cell> <cell>sought</cell> <cell>sought</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Seethe</cell> <cell>seethed</cell> <cell>sodden</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Sell</cell> <cell>sold</cell> <cell>sold</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Send</cell> <cell>sent</cell> <cell>sent</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Set</cell> <cell>set</cell> <cell>set</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Shake</cell> <cell>shook</cell> <cell>shaken</cell> </row> <pagebreak page_no="62"/> <row role="data"> <cell>Shall</cell> <cell>should</cell> <cell>-</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Shape</cell> <cell>shaped</cell> <cell>shapen, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Shave</cell> <cell>shaved</cell> <cell>shaven, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Shear</cell> <cell>sheared</cell> <cell>shorn</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Shed</cell> <cell>shed</cell> <cell>shed</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Shine</cell> <cell>shone, R</cell> <cell>shone, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Show</cell> <cell>showed, R</cell> <cell>shown, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Shoe</cell> <cell>shod</cell> <cell>shod</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Shoot</cell> <cell>shot</cell> <cell>shot</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Shrink</cell> <cell>shrunk</cell> <cell>shrunk</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Shred</cell> <cell>shred</cell> <cell>shred</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Shut</cell> <cell>shut</cell> <cell>shut</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Sing</cell> <cell>sang, sung</cell> <cell>sung</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Sink</cell> <cell>sank, sunk</cell> <cell>sunk</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Sit</cell> <cell>sat</cell> <cell>sat, sitten</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Slay</cell> <cell>slew</cell> <cell>slain</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Sleep</cell> <cell>slept</cell> <cell>slept</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Slide</cell> <cell>slid, R</cell> <cell>slidden</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Sling</cell> <cell>slang, slung</cell> <cell>slung</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Slink</cell> <cell>slunk</cell> <cell>slunk</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Slit</cell> <cell>slit, R</cell> <cell>slit</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Smite</cell> <cell>smote</cell> <cell>smitten</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Snow</cell> <cell>snowed</cell> <cell>snown, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Sow</cell> <cell>sowed</cell> <cell>sown, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Speak</cell> <cell>spake, spoke</cell> <cell>spoken</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Speed</cell> <cell>sped</cell> <cell>sped</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Spend</cell> <cell>spent</cell> <cell>spent</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Spill</cell> <cell>spilt, R</cell> <cell>spilt, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Spin</cell> <cell>spun</cell> <cell>spun</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Spit</cell> <cell>spat</cell> <cell>spitten</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Split</cell> <cell>split</cell> <cell>split</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Spread</cell> <cell>spread</cell> <cell>spread</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Spring</cell> <cell>sprang, sprung</cell> <cell>sprung</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Stand</cell> <cell>stood</cell> <cell>stood</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Steal</cell> <cell>stole</cell> <cell>stolen</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Stick</cell> <cell>stuck</cell> <cell>stuck</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Sting</cell> <cell>stung</cell> <cell>stung</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Stink</cell> <cell>stunk</cell> <cell>stunk</cell> </row> <pagebreak page_no="63"/> <row role="data"> <cell>Stride</cell> <cell>strode</cell> <cell>stridden</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Strike</cell> <cell>struck</cell> <cell>struck, stricken</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>String</cell> <cell>strung</cell> <cell>strung</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Strive</cell> <cell>strove</cell> <cell>striven</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Strow strew</cell> <cell>strowed, strewed</cell> <cell>strown, strewed</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Swore</cell> <cell>sware, sworn</cell> <cell>sworn</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Sweat</cell> <cell>sweat</cell> <cell>sweat</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Swell</cell> <cell>swelled</cell> <cell>swollen</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Swim</cell> <cell>swam, swum</cell> <cell>swum</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Swing</cell> <cell>swung</cell> <cell>swung</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Take</cell> <cell>took</cell> <cell>taken</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Teach</cell> <cell>taught</cell> <cell>taught</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Tear</cell> <cell>tare, tore</cell> <cell>torn</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Tell</cell> <cell>told</cell> <cell>told</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Think</cell> <cell>thought</cell> <cell>thought</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Thrive</cell> <cell>throve, R</cell> <cell>thriven</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Throw</cell> <cell>threw</cell> <cell>thrown</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Thrust</cell> <cell>thrust</cell> <cell>thrust</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Tread</cell> <cell>trod, trode</cell> <cell>trodden</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Trow</cell> <cell>-</cell> <cell>-</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Wear</cell> <cell>wore</cell> <cell>worn</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Weave</cell> <cell>wove, R</cell> <cell>woven, R</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Weep</cell> <cell>wept</cell> <cell>wept</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Wet</cell> <cell>wet</cell> <cell>wet</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Will</cell> <cell>would</cell> <cell>-</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Win</cell> <cell>won</cell> <cell>won</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Wind</cell> <cell>wound</cell> <cell>wound</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Wist</cell> <cell>wist</cell> <cell>-</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Wit wot</cell> <cell>wot</cell> <cell>-</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Work</cell> <cell>wrought, R</cell> <cell>wrought, worked</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Wring</cell> <cell>wrung, R</cell> <cell>wrung, wringed</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Write</cell> <cell>wrote</cell> <cell>written</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph>The whole number of verbs in the English language, regular and irregular, according to the calculation which has been made by some eminent grammarians, is about four thousand three hundred; but as we are daily borrowing new verbs, as well as other <pagebreak page_no="64"/>parts of speech, particularly substantives and terms of art, from foreign languages, it seems rather difficult, if it be not altogether impossible, to fix their exact number. About one hundred and eighty of these verbs may be looked upon as irregular.</paragraph> </div3> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of Adverbs."> <heading level="2">OF ADVERBS.</heading> <paragraph> <l>Adverbs from other parts of speech are known,</l> <l>Because before them they do all disown</l> <l><italic>By, with, in, from, through, for, to, of</italic>, and all</l> <l>Those pronouns which we personal do call.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>This first, with verb, and likewise with its noun,</l> <l>Makes perfect sense; as, <italic>Edward's</italic> <small_caps>early</small_caps> <italic>crown</italic>:</l> <l>And by its answering to the question, <italic>How</italic>,</l> <l>And in what manner, <italic>do they guide the plough?</italic></l> <l>These words the <italic>manner</italic>, <italic>time</italic>, and <italic>place</italic> imply,</l> <l><italic>Affirm, ask, doubt, compare</italic>, and e’en <italic>deny</italic>,</l> <l>As by the note below you may descry.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Like adjectives some adverbs take a rise,</l> <l>Or fall as much in number or in size. <footnote indicator="Asterisk"> <paragraph type="footnote">Adverbs are little particles which serve to express the manners or qualities of words, or some circumstance of an action; as, <italic>justly, now, soon</italic>. They are added to nouns, adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Adverbs are easily distinguished from other parts of speech, because they cannot admit before them a preposition; as, <italic>by, with, for, through, from, of, to</italic>; nor a personal pronoun; as, <italic>I, thou, he, we, ye, they</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">An adverb will make sense if joined with a verb; as, <italic>That boy reads</italic> distinctly. <italic>A wise man lives</italic> happily.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">It makes sense when placed before a noun with its adjective; as, <italic>He is a</italic> truly <italic>judicious person</italic>. And also when placed before another adverb; as, <italic>He reads</italic> very correctly.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">An adverb may be generally known by its answering to the questions, <italic>How? How much? When? Where?</italic> Thus, in the phrase, <italic>A wise man lives happily</italic>; the answer to the question, <italic>How does the wise man live?</italic> is, <italic>happily</italic>. Again; <italic>He reads very correctly</italic>; the answer to the question, <italic>How does he read?</italic> is, <italic>very correctly</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Adverbs in the English language being very numerous, they may be classed in the following manner, viz.:</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">I. <small_caps>Adverbs of Place</small_caps>: these are fourfold, namely, those which signify motion or rest,<linebreak/> 1st. <italic>In a place</italic>; as, <small_caps>Where?</small_caps> Here, there, within, without, everywhere, nowhere, somewhere, elsewhere, anywhere, in the same place.<linebreak/>2ndly. <italic>To a place</italic>; as, <small_caps>Whither?</small_caps> Hither, thither, to within, to without, to that place, to another place.<linebreak/>3rdly. <italic>Towards a place</italic>; as, <small_caps>Whitherward?</small_caps> Towards, nitherward, thitherward, upward, downward, forward, backward.<linebreak/>4thly. <italic>From a place</italic>; as, <small_caps>Whence?</small_caps> Hence, thence, whithersoever, from above, from below.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">II. <small_caps>Adverbs of Time</small_caps>: these are fourfold, viz.:</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"> 1st. <italic>Time present</italic>; as, now, to-day, &c.<linebreak/> 2nd. <italic>Time past</italic>; as, then, yesterday, heretofore, before, lately, hitherto, &c.<linebreak/> 3rd. <italic>Future time</italic>; as, (<italic>near</italic>) presently, immediately, instantly, by and by, straightways; (<italic>more remote</italic>) to-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforward.<linebreak/> 4th. <italic>Indefinite time</italic>; as, oft, often, oft-times, sometimes, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, ever, never, in the mean time, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">III. <small_caps>Of Quantity</small_caps>; as, much, little, enough, somewhat, something, how much, how great, abundantly, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">IV. <small_caps>Of Number</small_caps>; as, once, twice, thrice, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">V. <small_caps>Of Order</small_caps>; as, first, secondly, thirdly, &c., lastly, finally.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">VI. <small_caps>Of Quality</small_caps>; as, wisely, foolishly, quickly, slowly, justly, unjustly, &c. This class of adverbs is very numerous, and is generally formed by adding <italic>ly</italic> to, or by changing <italic>le</italic> into <italic>ly</italic>, in adjectives; as, bad, badly; good, goodly; able, ably; prudent, prudently.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">VII. <small_caps>Of Affirming</small_caps>; as, verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">VIII. <small_caps>Of Asking</small_caps>; as, how? why? wherefore? whether?</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">IX. <small_caps>Of Doubt</small_caps>; as, perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">X. <small_caps>Of Denying</small_caps>; as, nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">XI. <small_caps>Of Comparing</small_caps>; as, more, most; less, little; less, least; very, almost, alike, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Observations. Many of the adverbs seem to have been originally invented for the purpose of expressing in one word, what must otherwise have required two or more; as, he acted wisely, for he acted with wisdom; prudently, for with prudence; he came here, for he came to this place; the weather is exceedingly sultry, for the weather is sultry to a very great degree; often, for many times; seldom, for few times, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">There are likewise many words in English that are sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as adverbs; as, more boys than girls were there; or, I am more industrious than he. In the former sentence more is evidently an adjective, but in the latter it is doubtless an adverb. There are others also which are sometimes used as nouns substantive, and sometimes as adverbs; as, the lesson of to-day is longer than that of yesterday: here to-day and yesterday are both nouns, because they are words which make sense by themselves, and admit the preposition of before them; or, it maybe expressed thus, To-day's lesson is longer than yesterday's, where those words are put in the possessive case of the noun. But in the phrase, He came to town yesterday, and will return again to-day, the words are undoubtedly adverbs of time, because they answer to the question When? as, When did he come to town? Yesterday. When will he return? To-day.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Much may be used as a substantive, as an adjective, and as an adverb; thus: Where much is given, much will be required. Much money has been laid out. It is much better to go than to stay. In the first of these sentences much is a noun substantive; in the second, an adjective; and in the third, an adverb. In truth, nothing but their signification can properly determine what they are.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Lastly, adverbs are frequently compared like adjectives; as, <table cols="3" rows="5"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Positive</cell> <cell>Comparative</cell> <cell>Superlative</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Often</cell> <cell>oftener</cell> <cell>oftenest</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Soon</cell> <cell>sooner</cell> <cell>soonest</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Prudently</cell> <cell>more prudently</cell> <cell>most prudently</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Wisely</cell> <cell>more wisely</cell> <cell>most wisely, &c.</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> </footnote></l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="65"/> <paragraph> <l>Force to expression prepositions grant,</l> <l>And give to nouns the energy they want;</l> <l>'Fore substantives, in general, they appear,</l> <l>Though now and then they occupy the rear;</l> <l>As, <italic>We were</italic> over <italic>hills and vallies sent</italic>:</l> <l><italic>Over</italic> points out the manner how they went.</l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="66"/> <paragraph> <l>These little words of others show the state; -</l> <l>And how they to each other do relate,</l> <l>In the accompanying note you’ll find,</l> <l>And how their use and meaning are assigned.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"> <paragraph type="footnote">Prepositions may be known by their admitting after them pronouns in the objective case; as, <italic>with, for, to</italic>, &c., thus: with <italic>him</italic>, for <italic>her</italic>, to <italic>them</italic>, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Prepositions serve to connect words with one another, and to show the relation that subsists between them. They are, for the most part, set before substantives, pronouns, and verbs; as, before substantives: <italic>She is</italic> above <italic>disguise</italic>. <italic>He went</italic> from <italic>St. Paul's</italic> to <italic>Westminster Abbey</italic>. Before pronouns: <italic>He spoke</italic> to <italic>me</italic>. <italic>He walked</italic> with <italic>them</italic>. Before verbs: <italic>He promised</italic> to <italic>write</italic> for <italic>me</italic>. <italic>I was obliged</italic> to <italic>ride</italic>./></paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Prepositions are separable or inseparable.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Separable prepositions may be used separately from other words; as, <italic>above, about, over, under, at, after, with</italic>, &c., but some of these are sometimes joined with other words; as, <italic>overtake, undertake, afterward, withstand</italic>, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Those which are inseparable are always used in the composition of other words; as, <italic>a, be, fore, mis, un</italic>, &c., thus: <italic>aflout, betimes, forerun, misbehave, undue</italic>, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Prepositions, when prefixed to other words, generally impart something of their own meaning to the word with which they are compounded; as, <italic>undervalue, undergo, underlay, overvalue, overgo, overlay</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Some, by being placed after verbs, change their meaning; as, <italic>to cast</italic>, is <italic>to throw</italic>; but <italic>to cast up</italic>, is <italic>to compute</italic>; <italic>to give</italic> is <italic>to bestow</italic>; but <italic>to give over</italic>, is <italic>to abandon</italic>, or <italic>cease</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">These prepositions are sometimes used figuratively; as, <italic>He is</italic> above <italic>disguise</italic>. <italic>We serve</italic> under <italic>a good master</italic>. <italic>He rules</italic> over <italic>a willing people</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The importance of English prepositions will be fully conceived by the following explanation of a few of those which are most generally in use. Thus,</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Of</italic> denotes possession or belonging to, an effect or consequence, and other relations connected with these; as, <italic>The house</italic> of <italic>my father</italic>; that is, <italic>the house</italic> belonging to <italic>my father</italic>. <italic>He died</italic> of <italic>a fever</italic>; that is, <italic>he died</italic> in consequence of <italic>a fever</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>To</italic> or <italic>unto</italic> is opposed to <italic>from</italic>; as, <italic>He rode</italic> from <italic>London</italic> to <italic>York</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>For</italic> indicates the cause or motive of an action or circumstance, &c.; as, <italic>He loves her</italic> for (on account of) <italic>her amiable qualities</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>By</italic> is frequently used with reference to the cause, agent, means, &c.; as, <italic>He was killed</italic> by <italic>a fall</italic>; that is, <italic>a fall was</italic> the cause <italic>of his being killed</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>In</italic> relates to time, place, the state or manner of being, acting, &c.; as, <italic>He was born</italic> in (during the year) 1800. <italic>He dwells</italic> in <italic>the city</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Into</italic> is used after verbs that imply motion; as, <italic>He retired</italic> into <italic>the country</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>With</italic> denotes the act of accompanying, uniting, &c.; as, <italic>We will go</italic> with <italic>you</italic>. <italic>They are on good terms</italic> with <italic>each other</italic>. It also alludes to the instrument or means; as, <italic>He was cut</italic> with <italic>a knife</italic>. <italic>With</italic> also signifies <italic>against</italic>; as, <italic>to withstand</italic>, i. e. <italic>to stand</italic> against, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The principal prepositions in English are as follow: <list rend="simple"> <item>of</item> <item>to</item> <item>from</item> <item>for</item> <item>by</item> <item>in</item> <item>into</item> <item>at</item> <item>with</item> <item>within</item> <item>without</item> <item>up</item> <item>down</item> <item>on <italic>or</italic> upon</item> <item>off</item> <item>over</item> <item>through</item> <item>ago<ed_note type="correction">abo</ed_note></item> <item>below</item> <item>beneath</item> <item>under</item> <item>before</item> <item>after</item> <item>until</item> <item>behind</item> <item>beyond</item> <item>about</item> <item>near</item> <item>against</item> <item>among</item> <item>between</item> <item>beside</item> </list> </paragraph></footnote></l> </paragraph> </div2> <pagebreak page_no="67"/> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of Conjunctions."> <heading level="2">OF CONJUNCTIONS.</heading> <paragraph> <l>By conjunctive particles is fully shown</l> <l>How sentences' dependance may be known,</l> <l>And two be thus completely joined in one.</l> <l>Beside this use, we likewise often find</l> <l>That parts of sentences by them are joined.</l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="68"/> <paragraph> <l>These words in different sorts divided are,</l> <l>As cop'lative, disjunctive do declare;</l> <l>Beside all those which seem t’imply a cause,</l> <l>Condition, or concession, with the laws</l> <l>Of those which inference likewise do imply,</l> <l>As all our youth may easily descry.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"> <paragraph type="footnote">* The word <italic>conjunction</italic> is derived from the Latin, <italic>con, with</italic>, and <italic>jungo, to join</italic>; that is, <italic>to join together</italic>, or <italic>connect</italic> sentences, or the different parts of sentences, and point out the manner of their dependance upon each other.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Conjunctions are generally divided into several sorts, viz.:</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">1. <small_caps>Copulative</small_caps>, or <small_caps>Connective</small_caps>, which serve to connect or continue a sentence, or part of a sentence, by expressing an addition; as, <italic>Joseph</italic> and <italic>William reside in London</italic>. <italic>John</italic> and <italic>Mary</italic>, likewise <italic>Peter</italic>, as well as <italic>Francis, will go into the country</italic>. The copulatives are, <italic>and, also, likewise, both, as well as</italic>, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">2. A <small_caps>Conjunction Disjunctive</small_caps> serves to connect and continue a sentence, and to express opposition of meaning; as, <italic>Both John</italic> and <italic>James came with Mary</italic>, but, as neither of <italic>them would stay, they went without her</italic>, otherwise <italic>they would have lost their passage</italic>; nevertheless <italic>they returned in the evening</italic>. The disjunctive words are, <italic>or, nor, either, neither, but, except, than, yet, nevertheless, unless, otherwise, save, saving, whether, whether or not</italic>, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">3. <small_caps>Causals</small_caps> are such as imply a cause; as, <italic>Alexander conquered</italic>, for <italic>he was valiant</italic>. <italic>He was encouraged</italic>, because <italic>he was punctual</italic>. Causals are, <italic>for, because, seeing, forasmuch, as, so, since</italic>, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">4. <small_caps>Conditionals</small_caps> imply a supposition; as, <italic>Ye will be esteemed</italic>, if <italic>ye be good boys</italic>, as <italic>these are</italic>. Conditionals are, <italic>if, as, that, if so be</italic>, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">5. <small_caps>Concessives</small_caps> assign a reason; as, <italic>John will come</italic> although <italic>he be sick, and</italic> notwithstanding <italic>he appears to be rather worse</italic>. Concessives are, <italic>though, although, notwithstanding</italic>, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">6. <small_caps>Inferential Conjunctions</small_caps> are such as imply an inference; as, <italic>He is a good boy</italic>, therefore <italic>he shall be rewarded</italic>. These are, <italic>therefore, wherefore, then</italic>, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Some words of these classes are adverbs as well as conjunc tives; but the sense will determine to which they belong.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The following is a list of the principal conjunctions: <list rend="simple"> <item>also</item> <item>although</item> <item>and</item> <item>as</item> <item>as well as</item> <item>because</item> <item>both</item> <item>but</item> <item>either</item> <item>except</item> <item>for</item> <item>forasmuch as</item> <item>if</item> <item>if so be</item> <item>lest</item> <item>likewise</item> <item>neither</item> <item>nevertheless</item> <item>nor</item> <item>notwithstanding</item> <item>or</item> <item>otherwise</item> <item>save</item> <item>saving</item> <item>seeing</item> <item>since</item> <item>so</item> <item>than</item> <item>that</item> <item>then</item> <item>therefore</item> <item>though</item> <item>unless</item> <item>whereas</item> <item>wherefore</item> <item>whether</item> </list> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">We may here remark, that conjunctions and prepositions are words essential to discourse, and more so than the greater part of adverbs. They form a class of words, without which there could be no language, and serve to express the relations which things bear to one another, their mutual influence, dependencies, and coherence; thereby joining words together into intelligible and significant propositions.</paragraph> </footnote></l> </paragraph> </div2> <pagebreak page_no="69"/> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of Interjections."> <heading level="2">OF INTERJECTIONS.</heading> <paragraph> <l>These words, though few in number, have their use,</l> <l>Yet are they subject, sometimes, to abuse</l> <l>They are, however, little particles,</l> <l>Imperfect in their very form; or else</l> <l>They mark some passion of the mind, and cause</l> <l>A feeling in the hearer by some laws</l> <l>Which men have made; and in the notes you'll see</l> <l>On what occasions they can<ed_note type="correction">cau</ed_note> used be.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"> <paragraph type="footnote">The word <italic>interjection</italic> is derived from the Latin <italic>inter, between</italic>, and <italic>jacio, to put</italic> or <italic>place</italic>; and words of this part of speech are so called, because they are <italic>put</italic> or <italic>placed between</italic> sentences or the parts of a sentence, without making any other alteration therein.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Interjections, then, are certain little words (by some called little imperfect words) which are thrown in between the parts of a sentence, that express some sudden emotion or passion of the mind, as, Alas! <italic>I have caused a friend to become an enemy.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">There are as many kinds of interjection as there are different emotions or passions of the mind, so that it is not easy to reduce them to any fixed number.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">As these words are of various sorts, according to the different passions they are meant to express, so are they differently divided by our grammarians. The following distribution of them will answer every useful purpose.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"> <list rend="simple"> <item>Of <small_caps>Admiration</small_caps>; as, Lo! behold! strange!</item> <item>Of <small_caps>Aversion</small_caps> or <small_caps>Contempt</small_caps>; away! begone! fy! avaunt! pish! pshaw! tush! foh!</item> <item>Of <small_caps>Shouting</small_caps>; Huzza!</item> <item>Of <small_caps>Mirth</small_caps> or <small_caps>Joy</small_caps>; Hey! heyday!</item> <item>Of <small_caps>Grief</small_caps> or <small_caps>Sorrow</small_caps>; Alas! O! oh! ah! alack-a-day! woe's me!</item> <item>Of <small_caps>Wonder</small_caps>; Heigh! really! strange! ah!</item> <item>Of <small_caps>Silence</small_caps>; Hist! hush! mum!</item> <item>Of <small_caps>Languor</small_caps>; Heigh-ho!</item> <item>Of <small_caps>Salutation</small_caps>; Welcome! hail! all hail!</item> <item>Of <small_caps>Calling</small_caps>; Holla! ho! soho! hoa! hem! hee! hip!</item> <item>Of <small_caps>Praise</small_caps>; Well done!</item> <item>Of <small_caps>Laughter</small_caps>; Ha, ha, ha!</item> </list> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Some adverbs are used in this manner; as, gently! softly!</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">And some substantive nouns; as, O shame! with a mischief! O the villany!</paragraph> </footnote></l> </paragraph> </div2> <pagebreak page_no="70"/> <div2 description="main_text" name="The Derivation of Words."> <heading level="2">THE DERIVATION OF WORDS.</heading> <paragraph> <l>This part of Etymology must be</l> <l>Before the student laid, that he may see</l> <l>How one word from another has its source,</l> <l>And different parts of speech are framed in course.</l> <l>These words in various ways derived we find;</l> <l>From English some, and some from foreign kind.</l> <l>And that the learner may have clearer light,</l> <l>We in the notes shall set the matter right:</l> <l>Though some a different thought may entertain,</l> <l>Our plan they will assent to in the main. <footnote indicator="Asterisk"> <paragraph type="footnote">Nouns or substantives are derived from verbs by converting the present time or tense of the verb into a substantive; as, <italic>love, drink, a fight, a fright</italic>; from the verb <italic>to love, to drink, to fight, to fright</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Sometimes substantives are derived from the past time of the verb; as, <italic>a stroke</italic>, from <italic>struck</italic>, the past time of the verb to <italic>strike</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The participle present is converted into a substantive expressing the action; as, <italic>loving, drinking, fighting, frighting</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Substantives are sometimes formed by adding <italic>er</italic> to the verb; these show the agent, or person acting; as, <italic>lover, drinker, fighter, frighter, striker</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Substantives, adjectives, and sometimes other parts of speech, are changed into verbs, sometimes with, and at other times without, any alteration in their form; as, <italic>to sail, to salt, to taste</italic>, from the substantives, <italic>a sail, salt, taste</italic>. In this case the vowel is often lengthened, or the consonant softened; as, <italic>a house, to house; brass, to braze; price, to prize; breath, to breathe; further, to further; forward, to forward; hinder, to hinder</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Sometimes the termination <italic>en</italic> is added; as, <italic>haste, to hasten; length, to lengthen; short, to shorten; hard, to harden; soft, to soften</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Adjectives of plenty are formed from substantives by adding <italic>y</italic>; as, <italic>wealth, wealthy; health, healthy; wind, windy</italic>: but if the substantive end in <italic>e</italic>, the <italic>e</italic> is changed into <italic>y</italic>; as, <italic>bone, bony; stone, stony; grease, greasy</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Adjectives of plenty are likewise formed from substantives, by adding <italic>ful</italic>, which denotes abundance; as, <italic>joy, joyful; fruit, fruitful; plenty, plentiful</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Adjectives of likeness are formed from substantives by adding <italic>ly</italic>; as, <italic>earth, earthly; heaven, heavenly; man, manly</italic>. And some adjectives are formed from other adjectives in the same manner; as, <italic>good, goodly; weak, weakly; base, basely</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Adverbs of quality are formed from adjectives by adding <italic>ly</italic>; as, <italic>bold, boldly; swift, swiftly; slow, slowly</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Adjectives that signify the matter out of which any thing is made, are derived from substantives by adding <italic>en</italic>; as, <italic>oak, oaken; birch, birchen; ash, ashen</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Some adjectives of plenty or abundance are formed from substantives, by adding <italic>some</italic>; but in this case the degree is less than it is in those which end in <italic>y</italic> or <italic>ful</italic>; as, <italic>delight, delightsome; burden, burdensome; irk, irksome; trouble, troublesome</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Adjectives which import privation or want, are formed from substantives by adding <italic>less</italic>; as, <italic>father, fatherless; mother, motherless; child, childless; blame, blameless</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Privation or contrariety is very frequently denoted by prefixing the particle <italic>un</italic> to many adjectives; as, <italic>unpleasant, unwise, unworthy, unhealthy, unfruitful, unuseful</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">We may here observe, that the original English particle of privation is <italic>un</italic>, which has descended to us from the Saxon language; but as we frequently borrow from the Latin, or its descendants, words already signifying privation, as, <italic>inefficacious, indiscreet, indecorous, inactivity, inadequate</italic>, the inseparable particles <italic>un</italic> and <italic>in</italic> have fallen into confusion, from which it is not easy to disentangle them.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Un</italic> is prefixed to all words originally English; as, <italic>untrue, untruth, untaught, unhandsome</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Un</italic> is prefixed to all participles made privative adjectives; as, <italic>unfeeling, unassisting, unaided, undelighted, unendeared</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Un</italic> should by no means be prefixed to a participle present to mark a forbearance of action; as, <italic>unsighing</italic>; but a privation of habit; as, <italic>unpitying</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>Un</italic> is prefixed to most substantives which have an English termination; as, <italic>unfertileness, unperfectness</italic>; but if such words have borrowed terminations, <italic>in</italic> or <italic>im</italic> is used in preference to <italic>un</italic>; as, <italic>infertility, imperfection, uncivil, incivility, inactive, inactivity</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">In borrowing adjectives, if we receive them already compounded, it is customary to retain the particle prefixed; as, <italic>indecent, inelegant, improper</italic>; but if we borrow the adjective, and add the privative particle, we commonly prefix <italic>un</italic>; as, <italic>unpolite, ungallant</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, by adding <italic>ish</italic>, when a diminution or lessening of the quality is implied; as, <italic>white, whitish</italic>, that is, <italic>somewhat white</italic>; <italic>black, blackish</italic>; that is, <italic>somewhat black</italic>; <italic>round, roundish</italic>, that is, <italic>somewhat round</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Some adjectives are derived from substantives, by adding <italic>ish</italic>, and these signify likeness or tendency to a character; as, <italic>child, childish; boy, boyish; girl, girlish</italic>. Some nouns belonging to nations are formed in the same manner; as, <italic>English, Scottish, Irish, Spanish, Danish, Swedish, Turkish</italic>, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Some adjectives, which signify capacity, are formed from substantives or verbs, by adding the termination <italic>able</italic>; as, from substantives, <italic>answer, answerable; remark, remarkable; bail, bailable</italic>: from verbs, <italic>to move, moveable; to improve, improveable; to allow, allowable</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Some abstract substantives, noting character or quality, are derived from concrete adjectives, by adding the termination <italic>ness</italic>; as, <italic>white, whiteness; black, blackness; foolish, foolishness; swift, swiftness; slow, slowness; hard, hardness; soft, softness; good, goodness; skilful, skilfulness; unskilful, unskilfulness</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">And some abstract substantives, terminating in <italic>hood</italic> or <italic>head</italic>, and likewise noting character or quality, are derived from concrete adjectives, or other substantives; as, <italic>likely, likelihood; false, falsehood, brother, brotherhood; sister, sisterhood; man, manhood; widow, widowhood; priest, priesthood; knight, knighthood: God, Godhead; maiden, maidenhead</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Some abstract substantives are derived from adjectives in a peculiar manner, by adding the termination <italic>th</italic>, and making a little alteration in the orthography of the original adjective; as, <italic>long, length; strong, strength; broad, breadth; deep, depth; true, truth; warm, warmth; dear, dearth; heal, health; weal, wealth; moon, month; young, youth</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Some substantives are derived from verbs in the same manner, by the termination <italic>th</italic> being added to them; as, <italic>to bear, birth; to die, death; to grow, growth; to steal, stealth; to till, tilth</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Some substantives are derived from adjectives by adding <italic>ht</italic>, and making a little alteration in the orthography of the adjective; as, <italic>high, height; dry, drought</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Some substantives are derived from verbs in the same manner, by adding <italic>ht</italic>; as, <italic>to draw, draught; to fly, flight; to weigh, weight</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">There are so many ways of deriving words from one another, beside those already mentioned, that it is extremely difficult and almost impossible to enumerate them. The primitive words in any language are but very few; and the derivative words form by far the greatest number: we may therefore observe, that some substantives are derived from other substantives by adding the terminations <italic>ship, ery, wick, rick, dom, ian, ment, and age</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Substantives which end in <italic>ship</italic> imply an office, employment, state, or condition; as, <italic>kingship, lordship, wardship, guardianship, partnership, headship, stewardship, fellowship, chancellorship</italic>. Some substantives in <italic>ship</italic> are derived from adjectives; as, <italic>hard, hardship</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Some substantives that denote action or habit, are formed from other substantives, by the addition of <italic>ry</italic> or <italic>ery</italic>; as, <italic>knavery, slavery, foolery, drollery, prudery, roguery</italic>. Some substantives of this kind are derived from adjectives, by adding a similar termination; as, <italic>brave, bravery</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Substantives which signify dominion or jurisdiction, are formed by adding <italic>wick</italic>, <italic>rick</italic>, and <italic>dom</italic>, to other substantives or adjectives; as, <italic>bailiwick, sheriffwick, bishoprick, kingdom, dukedom, earldom, freedom, wisdom, sheriffdom, Christendom</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Substantives which signify profession are formed by adding <italic>ian</italic> to other substantives; as, <italic>physician, logician, rhetorician, mathematician, musician, metaphysician</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Many substantives are formed by the addition of <italic>ment</italic> or <italic>age</italic> to other substantives or verbs; as, <italic>commandment, disguisement, disfigurement, disfranchisement, usage, dotage, wharfage, cozenage, cooperage</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Some substantives are formed from verbs or adjectives, and denote character or habit, by adding <italic>ard</italic>; as, <italic>drunk, drunkard; dote, dotard; wise, wizzard; dull, dullard</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Some substantives of the derivative kind ending in <italic>ee</italic>, are of French original, and signify possession or the possessor; as, <italic>grantee</italic>, that is, <italic>one to whom a grant is made</italic>; <italic>lessee</italic>, that is, <italic>one to whom a lease is granted</italic>; <italic>mortgagee</italic>, that is, <italic>one to whom a mortgage is given</italic>; <italic>legatee</italic>, that is, <italic>one to whom a legacy is left</italic>; <italic>nominee</italic>, that is, <italic>one named to represent another</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Diminutive substantives are derived from other substantives, by adding the terminations <italic>kin, ling, ock, erel, icle, let</italic>; as, <italic>lamb, lambkin; man, manikin; pipe, pipkin; goose, gosling; duck, duckling; hill, hillock; cock, cockerel; pike, pickerel; part, particle; river, rivulet</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">In the English language there are a great number of words which are derived from the Latin, the French, and several other languages; so many indeed, that it is almost impossible to compute their number: and the impossibility is the greater, as the French borrow from the Latin, and we both from the Latin and the French; so that it is difficult, in many cases, to say, with precision, whether the words be derived from the one or the other. The word <italic>grace</italic>, for instance, is by some lexicographers derived from the Latin word <italic>gratia</italic>; but <reference type="reference" judgemental="0" referenced="Johnson, Samuel">Dr. Johnson</reference> and several others derive it from the French word <italic>grace</italic>; and it certainly comes more naturally to us from the French than it does from the Latin, though both may be said, without impropriety, to have had one common origin. The same may be observed with respect to the English word <italic>face</italic>, which has the same orthography in French, but in Latin it is <italic>facies</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The principal English words that are derived from the Latin are generally those which terminate in <italic>nce</italic> or <italic>cy</italic>, in <italic>ty</italic>, in <italic>ion</italic>, in <italic>ude</italic>, <italic>id</italic>, in <italic>n</italic>, <italic>t</italic>, or <italic>r</italic>, between two vowels, in <italic>nt</italic>, in <italic>al</italic>, <italic>il</italic>, in <italic>ious</italic>, and <italic>uous</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">English words that end in <italic>nce</italic> or <italic>cy</italic> are derived from Latin words in <italic>tia</italic>, by changing <italic>tia</italic> into <italic>ce</italic> or <italic>cy</italic>; as, <table cols="2" rows="6"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Latin</cell> <cell>English</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Abstinentia</cell> <cell>Abstinence</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Abundantia</cell> <cell>Abundance</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Patentia</cell> <cell>Patience</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Constantia</cell> <cell>Constancy</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Clementia</cell> <cell>Clemency</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">English words in <italic>ty</italic> are derived from Latin words in <italic>tas</italic>, by changing <italic>tas</italic> into <italic>ty</italic>; as, <table cols="2" rows="7"> <row role="heading"> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Latin</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">English</ed_note></cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Dignitas</cell> <cell>Dignity</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Equitas</cell> <cell>Equity</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Equalitas</cell> <cell>Equality</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Libertas</cell> <cell>Liberty</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Majestas</cell> <cell>Majesty</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Opportunitas</cell> <cell>Opportunity</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">English words in <italic>ion</italic> come from Latin words in <italic>io</italic>, by adding <italic>n</italic>; as, <table cols="2" rows="11"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Latin</cell> <cell>English</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Actio</cell> <cell>Action</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Additio</cell> <cell>Addition</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Subtractio</cell> <cell>Subtraction</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Multiplicatio</cell> <cell>Multiplication</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Divisio</cell> <cell>Division</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Reductio</cell> <cell>Reduction</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Natio</cell> <cell>Nation</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Relatio</cell> <cell>Relation</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Opinio</cell> <cell>Opinion</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Dominatio</cell> <cell>Domination</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">English words in <italic>ude</italic> come from Latin words in <italic>uda</italic>, by changing <italic>o</italic> into <italic>e</italic>; as, <table cols="2" rows="7"> <row role="heading"> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Latin</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">English</ed_note></cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Fortitudo</cell> <cell>Fortitude</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Gratitudo</cell> <cell>Gratitude</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Altitudo</cell> <cell>Altitude</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Latitudo</cell> <cell>Latitude</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Longitudo</cell> <cell>Longitude</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Multitudo</cell> <cell>Multitude</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">English words in <italic>id</italic> come from the Latin in <italic>idus</italic>, by rejecting <italic>us</italic>; as, <table cols="2" rows="10"> <row role="heading"> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Latin</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">English</ed_note></cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Acidus</cell> <cell>Acid</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Acridus</cell> <cell>Acrid</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Frigidus</cell> <cell>Frigid</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Horridus</cell> <cell>Horrid</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Placidus</cell> <cell>Placid</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Putridus</cell> <cell>Putrid</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Rigidus</cell> <cell>Rigid</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Timidus</cell> <cell>Timid</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Turgidus</cell> <cell>Turgid</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">English substantives that terminate in <italic>n</italic> or <italic>r</italic>, between two vowels, come from Latin substantives in <italic>ina</italic> or <italic>ura</italic>, by changing <italic>a</italic> into <italic>e</italic>; as, <table cols="2" rows="7"> <row role="heading"> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Latin</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">English</ed_note></cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Disciplina</cell> <cell>Discipline</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Doctrina</cell> <cell>Doctrine</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Concubina</cell> <cell>Concubine</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Natura</cell> <cell>Nature</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Statura</cell> <cell>Stature</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Mixtura</cell> <cell>Mxiture</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">English adjectives that terminate in <italic>n</italic>, <italic>t</italic>, or <italic>r</italic>, between two vowels, are derived from Latin adjectives in <italic>us</italic>, by changing <italic>us</italic> into <italic>e</italic>; as, <table cols="2" rows="7"> <row role="heading"> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Latin</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">English</ed_note></cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Completus</cell> <cell>Complete</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Marinus</cell> <cell>Marine</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Politus</cell> <cell>Polite</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Purus</cell> <cell>Pure</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Obscurus</cell> <cell>Obscure</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Terrenus</cell> <cell>Terrene</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">English adjectives and substantives that end in <italic>nt</italic>, are derived from Latin words in <italic>ns</italic>, by changing <italic>s</italic> into <italic>t</italic>; as, <table cols="2" rows="9"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Latin</cell> <cell>English</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Arrogans</cell> <cell>Arrogant</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Decens</cell> <cell>Decent</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Deficiens</cell> <cell>Deficient</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Elegans</cell> <cell>Elegant</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Flagrans</cell> <cell>Flagrant</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Reluctans</cell> <cell>Reluctant</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Delinquens</cell> <cell>Delinquent</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Remanens</cell> <cell>Remanent</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">English words ending in <italic>at</italic> are derived from Latin words in <italic>alis</italic>, by throwing away <italic>is</italic>; as, <table cols="2" rows="7"> <row role="heading"> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Latin</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">English</ed_note></cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Equalis</cell> <cell>Equal</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Frugalis</cell> <cell>Frugal</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Liberalis</cell> <cell>Liberal</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Naturalis</cell> <cell>Natural</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Perpetualis</cell> <cell>Perpetual</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Universalis</cell> <cell>Universal</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">English words that end in <italic>il</italic> come from Latin words in <italic>ilis</italic>, by rejecting <italic>is</italic>; as, <table cols="2" rows="3"> <row role="heading"> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Latin</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">English</ed_note></cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Civilis</cell> <cell>Civil</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Aprilis</cell> <cell>April</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">English words in <italic>ious</italic> are derived from Latin words in <italic>osus</italic>, by omitting the first <italic>s</italic>; as, <table cols="2" rows="7"> <row role="heading"> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Latin</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">English</ed_note></cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Curiosus</cell> <cell>Curious</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Generosus</cell> <cell>Generous</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Laboriosus</cell> <cell>Laborious</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Studiosus</cell> <cell>Studious</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Invidiosus</cell> <cell>Invidious</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Nebulosus</cell> <cell>Nebulous</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">English words in <italic>ous</italic> are likewise derived from Latin words in <italic>us</italic>, by inserting <italic>o</italic> before <italic>us</italic>; as, <table cols="2" rows="7"> <row role="heading"> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Latin</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">English</ed_note></cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Nefarius</cell> <cell>Nefarious</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Longimanus</cell> <cell>Longimanous</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Ligneus</cell> <cell>Ligneous</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Lusorius</cell> <cell>Lusorious</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Lutarius</cell> <cell>Lutarious</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Momentaneus</cell> <cell>Momentaneous</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">English words in <italic>uous</italic> are formed from Latin words in <italic>uus</italic>, by inserting <italic>o</italic> between the two <italic>u's</italic>; as, <table cols="2" rows="6"> <row role="heading"> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Latin</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">English</ed_note></cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Assiduus</cell> <cell>Assiduous</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Contiguus</cell> <cell>Contiguous</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Irriguus</cell> <cell>Irriguous</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Multiloquus</cell> <cell>Multiloquous</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Perspicuus</cell> <cell>Perspicuous</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Many of the above words, however, which are said to be derived from the Latin, might, perhaps, with as much propriety, be derived from the French, and with greater reason, because they come to us immediately from the French, though they came originally from the Latin; for the Norman French was brought into this country by William the Conqueror, and the pleadings in the courts of law were ordered to be carried on in that language in preference to the Saxon, so that in the end the French predominated: indeed, many of the words adopted by the English are purely French, though the French derived them from the Latin. We shall instance a few, in different parts of speech: some of them, however, have been changed a little in their orthography; thus: <table cols="3" rows="27"> <row role="heading"> <cell><ed_note type="addition">word class</ed_note></cell> <cell>French</cell> <cell>English</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Substant.</cell> <cell role="data">Condition</cell> <cell role="data">Condition</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Substant.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Crime</cell> <cell role="data">Crime</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Substant.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Exercice</cell> <cell role="data">Exercise</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Substant.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Fruit</cell> <cell role="data">Fruit</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Substant.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Projet</cell> <cell role="data">Project</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Substant.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Herbe</cell> <cell role="data">Herb</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Substant.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Poste</cell> <cell role="data">Post</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Substant.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Juge</cell> <cell role="data">Judge</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Substant.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Discours</cell> <cell role="data">Discourse</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Substant.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Jardin</cell> <cell role="data">Garden</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Substant.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Passage</cell> <cell role="data">Passage</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Substant.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Ministre</cell> <cell role="data">Minister</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Substant.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Lettre</cell> <cell role="data">Letter</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading">Adjec.</cell> <cell role="data">Abjecte</cell> <cell role="data">Abject</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Adjec.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Abominable</cell> <cell role="data">Abominable</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Adjec.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Abstersif</cell> <cell role="data">Abstersive</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Adjec.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Adorable</cell> <cell role="data">Adorable</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Adjec.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Aimable</cell> <cell role="data">Amiable</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Adjec.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Ambitieux</cell> <cell role="data">Ambitious</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Adjec.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Amoureuse</cell> <cell role="data">Amorous</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Adjec.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Aromatique</cell> <cell role="data">Aromatic</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Adjec.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Brave</cell> <cell role="data">Brave</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Adjec.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Calamiteux</cell> <cell role="data">Calamitous</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Adjec.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Charitable</cell> <cell role="data">Charitable</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Adjec.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Decent</cell> <cell role="data">Decent</cell> </row> <row> <cell role="heading"><ed_note type="addition">Adjec.</ed_note></cell> <cell role="data">Elegant</cell> <cell role="data">Elegant</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Many hundreds more might be enumerated, but the above will be sufficient to elucidate the observation made above.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Some verbs which seem borrowed from the Latin, are formed from the present tense; as, <table cols="2" rows="7"> <row role="heading"> <cell><ed_note type="addition">Latin</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">English</ed_note></cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Commendo</cell> <cell>To commend</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Convinco</cell> <cell>To convince</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Approbo</cell> <cell>To approve</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Concipio</cell> <cell>To conceive</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Provideo</cell> <cell>To provide</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Repello</cell> <cell>To repel</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"> And some from the supine; as, <table cols="2" rows="7"> <row role="heading"> <cell>French</cell> <cell>English</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Accommodatum</cell> <cell>To accommodate</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Enumeratum</cell> <cell>To enumerate</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Exaggeratum</cell> <cell>To exaggerate</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Translatum</cell> <cell>To translate</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Conductum</cell> <cell>To conduct</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Oppressum</cell> <cell>To oppress</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Some verbs are also formed from the French infinitive mood, by rejecting the termination <italic>er</italic>, and sometimes slightly altering the orthography; as, <table cols="2" rows="7"> <row role="heading"> <cell><ed_note type="addition">French</ed_note></cell> <cell><ed_note type="addition">English</ed_note></cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Avancer</cell> <cell>To advance</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Avancer</cell> <cell>To advance</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Aider</cell> <cell>To aid</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Crier</cell> <cell>To cry</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Danser</cell> <cell>To dance</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Plaider</cell> <cell>To plead</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">We might extend this subject to a much greater length, but we fear it is already carried too far.</paragraph> </footnote></l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="71"/> <pagebreak page_no="72"/> <pagebreak page_no="73"/> <folio folio_no="E"/> <pagebreak page_no="74"/> <pagebreak page_no="75"/> <pagebreak page_no="76"/> <pagebreak page_no="77"/> </div2> </div1> <div1 description="main_text" name="Syntax."> <heading level="1">SYNTAX.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">Syntax is by some denominated <small_caps>Construction</small_caps>, and is the right ordering of words in a sentence, so as to make the meaning clear, distinct, and intelligible. Or, the construction of a sentence is the regular connexion of the words agreeably to nature, which is generally more regarded by the English, and some other modem languages, than by those of the ancients.</footnote></heading> <paragraph> <l>Two or more words a sentence must contain,</l> <l>Which do some sentiment or thought explain.<footnote indicator="Dagger">No sentence can subsist which is not made up of two, three, or more words, by which some sentiment or thought of the mind is expressed; nor can it be without one verb and a noun signifying the subject of that verb, that is, a noun of which something is affirmed; as, <italic>Life is short. A falsehood is abominable. William wrote a letter.</italic></footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>A sentence is or <italic>simple</italic> or <italic>compound</italic>;</l> <l>Thus, in the first, <italic>one verb</italic> is always found,</l> <l>And of the subject too one noun expressed,</l> <l>Or understood, as is by all confessed.<footnote indicator="Double Dagger"> <paragraph type="footnote">There are three sorts of simple sentences, viz.: l. The explicative, or that which explains. 2. The interrogative, or that by which questions are asked 3. The imperative, or that which commands.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">An explicative sentence is when a thing is said to be or not to be, to do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer, in a direct manner; as, (affirmatively,) <italic>I am; thou writest; Thomas is loved</italic>: (negatively, <italic>I am not; thou dost not write; Thomas is not loved</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">In an interrogative sentence, or when a question is asked, the noun or pronoun follows the principal verb or the auxiliary; as, <italic>Was it James? Was it he? Did Alexander conquer the Persians?</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">In an imperative sentence, when a thing is commanded to be, to do, to suffer, or not, the noun follows the verb or the auxiliary; as, <italic>Go, thou deceiver! Do thou go. Haste ye away.</italic> But if the verb let be used, it is otherwise; as, <italic>Let us be gone; let us haste away.</italic></paragraph> </footnote></l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="79"/> <paragraph> <l>A compound sentence is of two composed,</l> <l>Or more, by little words connective closed.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences, which are joined together by one or more conjunctions, or connective words; as, <italic>Life is short, and eternity is long</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <div2 description="main_text" name="The Construction of Articles."> <heading level="2">THE CONSTRUCTION OF ARTICLES.</heading> <paragraph> <l><italic>A</italic> or <italic>an</italic> immediately we place</l> <l>Before the noun; <italic>the</italic> man, <italic>an</italic> hour, <italic>a</italic> face;</l> <l>But if an adjective would fain come in,</l> <l>'Tis mostly placed the <italic>a</italic> and noun between.<footnote indicator="Dagger">When an adjective is introduced it is generally placed between the article and the noun to which it belongs; as, <italic>a</italic> great <italic>man</italic>; <italic>a</italic> little <italic>woman</italic>; <italic>a</italic> spacious <italic>building</italic>: yet sometimes the article is put between the adjective and the noun; as, <italic>Such a gift is too small a reward for so valuable a labour, and so great a benefit</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="The Construction of Nouns."> <heading level="2">THE CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS.</heading> <paragraph> <l>The noun, the subject of the verb, we find</l> <l>Before it takes its place; 'tis so inclined:<footnote indicator="Double Dagger">The substantive or pronoun, of which the verb affirms something, is generally placed, in construction, before the verb; as, <italic>I am happy. The parson preaches. The book is read.</italic></footnote></l> <l>Except command or question be implied,</l> <l>Then to the noun precedence is denied.</l> <l>But if <italic>may, can, shall, will, ought, would</italic>, or <italic>do</italic>,</l> <l>Before the chiefest verb in language go,</l> <pagebreak page_no="80"/> <l>Then does the noun between them take its place,</l> <l>Else will the style want all its proper grace.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">If a question, command, permission, or concession be implied, then the noun is put after the verb, or between an auxiliary and a verb; thus, 1. When a question is asked; <italic>Does the house burn? May ye live?</italic> 2. When a command is given; <italic>Lovest thou</italic>, or <italic>Dost thou love?</italic> 3. When permission is given; <italic>You may pay money.</italic> 4. When something is conceded; <italic>I grant your desire.</italic></footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>If of these words two do at once precede</l> <l>The chiefest verb, you then must take great heed</l> <l>The noun between them doth obtain its lot;</l> <l>Would George have gone? Could William have forgot?</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>When the command the second person takes,</l> <l>The pronoun often no appearance makes.<footnote indicator="Dagger">As <italic>love</italic>, for <italic>love thou</italic>; <italic>depart</italic>, for <italic>depart thou</italic>; <italic>awake</italic>, for <italic>awake ye</italic>; the second person of the imperative mood, singular and plural; for every verb, except in the infinitive mood, or a participle, ought to have a noun expressed or understood.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>When did, might, should, would, could, and had, and were,</l> <l>If do imply; and also after there;</l> <l>The verb we find will go before the noun;<footnote indicator="Double Dagger">When the past time of <italic>do, may, can, will, shall, have, am</italic>, supplies the place of and implies <italic>if</italic>, the noun is set after the verb, and likewise <italic>there</italic> is used; as, Had he (<italic>for</italic> if he had) <italic>asked, he had obtained</italic>. Had I (<italic>for</italic> if I had) <italic>heard this, I should not have approved it</italic>. Were <italic>I a king, I would govern with moderation</italic>. There <italic>fell a thousand men</italic>.</footnote></l> <l>By way of emphasis the same 'twill own.<footnote indicator="Section Sign">The same is also done by way of <italic>emphasis</italic>; as, <italic>It was Cæsar who conquered. It was the house that fell</italic>. But this happens sometimes when there are none of these considerations; as, <italic>said I, said he</italic>, for <italic>I said, he said</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>A personal pronoun follows or precedes,</l> <l>Ev'n as the noun itself pursues or leads.<footnote indicator="Double Vertical Line">The nominative case of the personal pronoun is placed after the verb; as, <italic>I read; hearest thou? We walk; ride ye?</italic></footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>That verb in speech which doth an act extend</l> <l>To something else, will after it commend</l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="81"/> <paragraph> <l>A noun, to which that action does relate;</l> <l>As, <italic>Joseph spurns her with his usual hate</italic>.*</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>These nouns distinguished are by <italic>what?</italic> and <italic>who?</italic></l> <l>And <italic>whom?</italic> and <italic>what?</italic> as the examples show.†</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>But when the action don't at all relate</l> <l>T'another, but in the subject terminate,</l> <l>No noun the verb it then doth seem requires,</l> <l>To follow it, but in itself expires.<footnote indicator="Double Dagger">When the action of the verb does not extend or relate to any other person or thing, but terminates in the subject, no noun is required after it; as, <italic>I grieve, I sit, I rejoice, I run, I stand</italic>, &c.; they are, therefore, generally termed neuter verbs.</footnote></l> </paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="The Construction of Adjectives."> <heading level="2">THE CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES.</heading> <paragraph> <l>The adjectives in English mostly own</l> <l>The place immediately before their noun:<footnote indicator="Section Sign">As adjectives have no variation of gender or number in the English language, they do not admit of many rules in construction; and although in nature we think of the noun before the adjective, yet the adjectives are generally placed before the nouns to which they belong, or of which they express the manner; as, <italic>a</italic> good <italic>man</italic>; <italic>a</italic> good <italic>woman</italic>; <italic>a</italic> virtuous <italic>girl</italic>; <italic>an</italic> industrious <italic>boy</italic>; <italic>an</italic> elegant <italic>house</italic>; <italic>a</italic> ruinous <italic>castle</italic>. Rude <italic>behaviour and</italic> indecent <italic>language are disgraceful to youth of education.</italic> Just <italic>art thou, O God! and</italic> righteous <italic>are thy judgments.</italic></footnote></l> <pagebreak page_no="82"/> <l>Except a verb its station takes between;</l> <l>As in the annex'd examples may be seen.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">Except a verb come between the adjective and the noun, for then the adjective is generally placed after it; as, <italic>God</italic> is <italic>gracious</italic>. <italic>God</italic> is <italic>just, and his judgments</italic> are <italic>righteous</italic>. <italic>Feed</italic> me <italic>with food</italic> convenient <italic>for me</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <l>Poetic diction, with peculiar grace,</l> <l>Allows the noun we see the foremost place.<footnote indicator="Dagger">As <l>"Hail, bard divine!"</l> <l>"Communion sweet, communion large and high."</l> <l>"To lordlings proud I tune my lay."</l> <l>"Sweet charity, long-suffering, meek, and kind."</l> </footnote></l> <paragraph> <l>But when there are more adjectives than one</l> <l>That come together, or together join;</l> <l>Or one adjective with its governed train;</l> <l>The noun in common follows it is plain.<footnote indicator="Double Dagger">When more adjectives than one come together, they are sometimes placed after the noun, and sometimes before it; as, <italic>A man both</italic> wise <italic>and</italic> valiant. <italic>A man exceedingly</italic> wise, valiant, <italic>and</italic> successful. <italic>A gentleman</italic> skilful, expert, <italic>and</italic> dextrous. Or, <italic>A</italic> wise <italic>and</italic> valiant <italic>man</italic>. <italic>An exceedingly</italic> wise, valiant, <italic>and</italic> successful <italic>man</italic>. <italic>A</italic> skilful, expert, <italic>and</italic> dextrous <italic>gentleman</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>A noun and all its adjectives unite,</l> <l>And form one word, as sev'ral learned write;</l> <l>But when these different words in one conspire,</l> <l>They then some other adjective require.<footnote indicator="Section Sign">A substantive with its adjectives, or any governing word with its attendants, is, by some grammarians, considered as one compounded word, but, we think, erroneously; as, <italic>a man, an old man, a wise old man, a very wise old man</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="The Construction of Pronouns."> <heading level="2">THE CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS.</heading> <paragraph> <l>Possessive pronouns, which from nouns do flow,</l> <l>Before their substantives directly go;</l> <l>As, <italic>my</italic> house, <italic>thy</italic> friend, <italic>his</italic> favour, <italic>her</italic> book,</l> <l><italic>Our</italic> regard, <italic>their</italic> relations, and <italic>your</italic> crook.</l> </paragraph> </div2> <pagebreak page_no="83"/> <div2 description="main_text" name="The Construction of Verbs."> <heading level="2">THE CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS.</heading> <paragraph> <l>The verb in language always must agree</l> <l>In number and person with the noun you’ll see.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"> <paragraph type="footnote">The verb must always agree in construction with its nominative case, (that is, with the noun of which it affirms something,) both in number and person, whether it be singular or plural; as, <italic>I write; thou<ed_note type="correction">thau</ed_note> art taught; the vessel sails: We sing; ye are improved</italic>. <italic>Disappointments</italic> sink <italic>the heart of man, but the renewal of hope</italic> gives <italic>consolation</italic>. <l>In vain our flocks and fields <italic>increase</italic> our store,</l> <l>When our abundance <italic>makes</italic> us wish for more.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Here the nominative case is known by asking the question <italic>Who?</italic> or <italic>What?</italic> as, <italic>Who writes? I. Who is taught? Thou. What sails? The ship. Who sing? We. Who are improved? Ye. What sink the heart? Disappointments. What gives consolation? The renewal of hope. What is our store increased by? Our flocks and fields. What makes us wish for more? Our abundance</italic></paragraph> </footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>When of two nouns or more (each singular)</l> <l>We aught affirm, the verbs most justly are</l> <l>In the plural number made to appear.<footnote indicator="Dagger">When a verb relates to, or affirms something of, two or more foregoing nouns, joined by a conjunction, though they be all of the singular number, the verb must be of the plural. Or, if two or more substantives singular, joined by a conjunction, be the nominative to the verb, the verb must be of the plural number; as, <italic>My father and mother</italic> are <italic>at home. My brother, sister, and cousin</italic> are <italic>gone to school. Idleness and ignorance</italic> give rise <italic>to many vices.</italic> <italic>What</italic> signify <italic>the counsel and care of preceptors, when youth</italic> think <italic>they have no need of assistance.</italic> <reference judgemental="1" referenced="Blair, Dr." type="agreement">Dr. Blair</reference> justly observes, that two or more substantives joined by a copulative must always require the verbs or pronouns to which they refer to be placed in the plural number.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>A verb we find may be placed (at our ease)</l> <l>In singular or plural, which we please,</l> <l>When to a noun of number it is joined,</l> <l>Though still the same we singular do find.<footnote indicator="Double Dagger">A noun of multitude or number, the meaning of which implies more than one, although it be itself in the singular, the verb may be in the singular or plural; as, <italic>The mob</italic> was <italic>unruly</italic>; or, <italic>the mob</italic> were <italic>unruly</italic>. <italic>The army</italic> is (<italic>or</italic> are) <italic>well disciplined. The people</italic> are <italic>dissatisfied. The meeting</italic> was <italic>large. My people</italic> do <italic>not consider.</italic></footnote></l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="84"/> <paragraph> <l>When two verbs are in composition seen</l> <l>To come together, <italic>to</italic> is placed between,<footnote indicator="Asterisk">As, <italic>Cease</italic> to <italic>do evil; learn</italic> to <italic>do well. We should be prepared</italic> to <italic>render an account of our actions. I wish him not</italic> to <italic>wrestle with his happiness.</italic></footnote></l> <l>Except <italic>let, bid, dare, help</italic>, and <italic>may, can, would</italic>,</l> <l>With <italic>shall</italic> and <italic>will, have, am</italic>, and <italic>should</italic> and <italic>could</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l><italic>Have, am</italic>, or <italic>be</italic>, with participle joined,</l> <l>Or adjective that being calls to mind,</l> <l>All suffering and being does express</l> <l>That modern English language will confess.<footnote indicator="Dagger">As, <italic>I</italic> being well, needed <italic>not a physician</italic>. <italic>I</italic> am loved.</footnote></l> </paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="The Construction of Adverbs."> <heading level="2">THE CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS.</heading> <paragraph> <l>Some little words there are we adverbs call,</l> <l>For after verbs we always place them all:</l> <l>They take their station thus the learn'd admit;</l> <l>But before adjectives are mostly set.<footnote indicator="Double Dagger">Adverbs are generally placed after those verbs whose manners they express; as, <italic>He</italic> writes elegantly. <italic>The parson</italic> spoke largely <italic>on the subject</italic>. <italic>He</italic> walks slowly. But they are placed before adjectives; as, <italic>He is a</italic> very good <italic>accountant. He is an</italic> exceedingly rich <italic>man. He is</italic> very honest <italic>in his dealings</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Betwixt auxiliaries and verbs they’re placed,</l> <l>And thus the English tongue is sometimes graced.<footnote indicator="Section Sign">Adverbs are sometimes placed between the auxiliary and the verb; as, <italic>I was</italic> tenderly <italic>educated. I was</italic> carefully <italic>instructed</italic>. But it would be equally elegant to say, <italic>I was educated</italic> tenderly. <italic>I was instructed</italic> carefully.</footnote></l> </paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="The Construction of Prepositions."> <heading level="2">THE CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS.</heading> <paragraph> <l>Between the words whose reference they express,</l> <l>The prepositions claim a certain place.<footnote indicator="Double Vertical Line">All substantives, adjectives, and verbs have various states, relations, and references to each other, which are expressed, for the most part, by the prepositions <italic>of, to, for, by, with, through,</italic> &c. Such as these are of the most frequent use; as, <italic>O God! the memorial</italic> of <italic>thy love</italic> to <italic>the sons</italic> of <italic>men,</italic> from <italic>the beginning</italic> of <italic>the world</italic> to <italic>this day, is recorded</italic> with <italic>thankfulness</italic> in <italic>the hearts</italic> of <italic>all good persons.</italic> All the prepositions in this sentence point out the relation or reference of noun to noun, and their connexion, in that manner, with each other: they must, therefore, be placed between those words, the relation and dependance of which they are to express.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="85"/> <paragraph> <l>Of has this peculiar eminence,</l> <l>Always to bound of words the gen’ral sense.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">As <italic>of</italic> signifies or points out the relation that subsists between the noun which goes before it, and that which follows it; so it has the peculiar property of limiting and determining the general signification of the word on which it depends.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Two nouns may be without a word between,</l> <l>But of betwixt is often to be seen.<footnote indicator="Dagger">When two nouns come together, <italic>of</italic> is generally placed between them; but when <italic>of</italic> signifies possession, it is frequently omitted, and the first is put in the possessive case; as, <italic>My</italic> father's <italic>house</italic>; or, <italic>the house</italic> of <italic>my father</italic>. <italic>Man's happiness</italic>; or, <italic>the happiness</italic> of <italic>man</italic>. <italic>Virtue's reward</italic>; or, <italic>the reward</italic> of <italic>virtue</italic>.</footnote></l> <l>Except they to the same thing do incline,</l> <l>For then the middle of we do decline.<footnote indicator="Double Dagger">When two nouns come together and relate to the same thing, the word of is better omitted; as, <italic>the river Thames; the river Severn; the Atlantic Ocean</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Between superlatives and following nouns,</l> <l>Of, by grammatic right, a station owns.<footnote indicator="Section Sign">All adjectives in the superlative degree may be followed by the preposition <italic>of</italic>; as, <italic>the wisest</italic> of <italic>philosophers; the best</italic> of <italic>princes; the most consummate</italic> of <italic>villains</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>When from the noun comes hurt or benefit,</l> <l>To, to direct you where 'tis aim'd, thinks fit.<footnote indicator="Double Vertical Line">The preposition <italic>to</italic> or <italic>for</italic> imports the person or thing <italic>to</italic> or <italic>for</italic> whom any convenience or inconvenience is intended by the noun, adjective, or verb; as, <italic>A friend</italic> to <italic>the poor; kind</italic> to <italic>all men; yielding</italic> to <italic>the more intelligent</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>When you the instrument or manner how,</l> <l>By which, wherewith, express, allow</l> <l>These little words to be for ever seen,</l> <l>By, with, and through, and from, and also in.<footnote indicator="Pillcrow"> <paragraph type="footnote">When we make use of language by which we would point out the instrument, or show the medium by which, wherewith, or the manner how a thing is done, we adopt the words <italic>by, with, from, through, in</italic>, and such like; as, <italic>The rays</italic> of <italic>the sun</italic>, with <italic>incredible swiftness, travel</italic> from <italic>their source,</italic> through <italic>the air,</italic> to <italic>the earth, endued</italic> with <italic>light and heat,</italic> by (with, through) <italic>which it comforts us, and causes the vegetables</italic> to <italic>grow, which God has provided</italic> for <italic>us, and given</italic> to <italic>us</italic> for <italic>our use, and</italic> for <italic>his own glory.</italic></paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><italic>By</italic> is made use of for the efficient (as well principal as instrumental and moral) cause, and signifies <italic>near to</italic>, &c.; as, <italic>He was slain</italic> by <italic>his enemy,</italic> by (beside, or near to) <italic>a spring of water, but he was wounded, first</italic> by <italic>his own fear, then</italic> by <italic>the sword of his antagonist.</italic></paragraph> </footnote></l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="86"/> <paragraph> <l>In composition we these words do place</l> <l>Before a pronoun in the oblique case.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">As, of <italic>me</italic>, to <italic>him</italic>, with <italic>her</italic>, from <italic>us</italic>, by <italic>them</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="The Construction of Conjunctions."> <heading level="2">THE CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS.</heading> <paragraph> <l>This part of speech we frequently do find</l> <l>Is used when one word to another’s joined;</l> <l>Clauses of sentences do likewise claim</l> <l>A similar little word to join the same;</l> <l>And they between those sentences take site,</l> <l>Which by their joining virtue they unite.<footnote indicator="Dagger"> <paragraph type="footnote">As, Man <italic>and</italic> woman. Virtue <italic>and</italic> vice. Happiness <italic>and</italic> misery. Truth <italic>and</italic> falsehood. Good <italic>and</italic> bad.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The lips of the righteous feed many, <italic>but</italic> fools die for want of wisdom.</paragraph> </footnote></l> </paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="The Construction of Interjections."> <heading level="2">THE CONSTRUCTION OF INTERJECTIONS.</heading> <paragraph> <l>These little particles we always find</l> <l>Do nought but mark some passion of the mind.</l> <l>In parts of sentences we see them thrown,</l> <l>But they have no construction of their own.</l> <l>They're scarcely worth consideration,</l> <l>But in our tongue they have a station.</l> <l>Sometimes, however, they add greater force,</l> <l>But their chief use is when we write in verse.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>In invocation we prefix an <italic>O!</italic></l> <l><italic>O God! our frailty thou dost surely know.</italic><footnote indicator="Double Dagger">Interjections are certain little intervening particles or words, which are thrown in between the different parts of a sentence, and have not properly any construction; that is, they neither agree with nor govern any other words. The <reference type="quotation" referenced="Murray, Lindley" source="English Grammar Adapted to the Different Classes of Learners, 1795, p. 29" judgemental="1">Rev. Mr. Lindley Murray</reference>, Gram. p. 29, <judgement type="consent" tedency="positive">very justly</judgement> observes, <quotation author="Murray, Lindley" source_added="0" title="English Grammar Adapted to the Different Classes of Learners, 1795, p. 29">"The interjection seems scarcely worthy of being considered as a part of artificial language or speech, being rather a branch of that natural language which we possess in common with the brute creation, and by which we express the sudden emotions and passions that <ed_note type="correction">hat</ed_note> actuate our frame."</quotation></footnote></l> </paragraph> </div2> </div1> <pagebreak page_no="87"/> <div1 description="main_text" name="The Grammatical Resolution of Sentences."> <heading level="1">THE GRAMMATICAL RESOLUTION OF SENTENCES, <italic>In which the Parts of Speech are carefully explained</italic>.</heading> <paragraph><reference type="quotation" judgemental="0" referenced="Chesterfield, Earl of" source="The Economy of Human Life, 1750"><small_caps>The Economy of Human Life</small_caps>. Pt. <small_caps>iv</small_caps>. Sect. <small_caps>iii</small_caps>.</reference></paragraph> <quotation author="Chesterfield, Earl of" source_added="0" title="The Economy of Human Life, 1750"><paragraph>From the creatures of God let man learn wisdom, and apply to himself the instruction they give.</paragraph> <paragraph>Go to the desert, my son; observe the young stork of the wilderness, let him speak to thy heart; he beareth on his wings his aged sire, he lodgeth him in safety, and supplieth him with food.</paragraph> <paragraph>The piety of a child is sweeter than the incense of Persia offered to the sun; yea, more delicious than odours wafted from a field of Arabian spices, by the western gales.</paragraph> <paragraph>Be grateful then to thy father, for he gave thee life; and to thy mother, for she sustained thee.</paragraph> <paragraph>Hear the words of his mouth, for they are spoken for thy good: give ear to his admonition, for it proceeded from love.</paragraph> <paragraph>He hath watched for thy welfare, he hath toiled for thy ease; do honour therefore to his age, and let not his grey hairs be treated with irreverence.</paragraph> <paragraph>Forget not thy helpless infancy, nor the frowardness of thy youth, and indulge the infirmities of thy aged parents; assist and support them in the decline of life.</paragraph> <paragraph>So shall thy hoary heads go down to the grave in peace; and thine own children, in reverence of thy example, shall repay thy piety with filial love.</paragraph></quotation> <pagebreak page_no="88"/> <paragraph><italic>From</italic>, a preposition. <italic>The</italic>, the definite article. <italic>Creatures</italic>, a noun substantive, plural number, oblique case, governed by the preposition from. <italic>Of</italic>, a preposition. <italic>God</italic>, a substantive, singular number, oblique case, governed by the preposition <italic>of</italic>. <italic>Let</italic>, an imperfect verb, used in forming the imperative mood. <italic>Man</italic>, a substantive, singular number, oblique case, governed by the verb <italic>let</italic>. <italic>Learn</italic>, an active verb, imperative mood, third person singular. <italic>Wisdom</italic>, a substantive, singular number, oblique case, governed by <italic>learn</italic>. <italic>And</italic>, a conjunction. <italic>Apply</italic>, verb active, imperative mood, third person singular. <italic>To</italic>, a preposition. <italic>Himself</italic>, the personal pronoun <italic>him</italic>, with <italic>self</italic> added to it, third person singular, masculine gender, oblique case, governed by <italic>to</italic>. <italic>The</italic>, as before. <italic>Instruction</italic>, substantive, singular number, oblique ease, governed by <italic>apply</italic>. <italic>They</italic>, personal pronoun, neuter gender, third person plural, nominative case: it supplies the place of <italic>creatures</italic>. <italic>Give</italic>, verb active, indicative mood, present time, third person plural, agreeing with its noun <italic>they</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph><italic>Go</italic>, neuter verb, imp. mood, second person singular. <italic>To</italic>, as before. <italic>The</italic>, as before. <italic>Desert</italic>, substantive, singular number, oblique case, governed by <italic>to</italic>. <italic>My</italic>, possessive pronoun, first person singular. <italic>Son</italic>, substantive, singular, nominative case. <italic>Observe</italic>, verb active, imperative mood, second person singular. <italic>The</italic>, as before. <italic>Young</italic>, adjective. <italic>Stork</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>observe</italic>. <italic>Of</italic>, as before. <italic>The</italic>, as before. <italic>Wilderness</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>of</italic>. <italic>Let</italic>, as before. <italic>Him</italic>, personal pronoun, third person singular, masculine, oblique case, governed by <italic>let</italic>. <italic>Speak</italic>, neuter verb, imperative mood, third person singular. <italic>To</italic>, as before. <italic>Thy</italic>, possessive pronoun, second person singular. <italic>Heart</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>to</italic>. <italic>He</italic>, personal pronoun, third person singular, masculine, nominative. <italic>Beareth</italic>, active verb, indicative mood, present tense, third person singular, <pagebreak page_no="89"/>agreeing with its nominative <italic>he</italic>. <italic>On</italic>, preposition. <italic>His</italic>, possessive pronoun, third person singular, masculine. <italic>Wings</italic>, substantive, plural, oblique case, governed by <italic>on</italic>. <italic>His</italic>, as before. <italic>Aged</italic>, adjective. <italic>Sire</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>beareth</italic>. <italic>He</italic>, as before. <italic>Lodgeth</italic>, active verb, indicative mood, present tense, third person singular, agreeing with <italic>he</italic>. <italic>Him</italic>, as before, governed by <italic>lodgeth</italic>. <italic>In</italic>, preposition. <italic>Safety</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>in</italic>. <italic>And</italic>, as before. <italic>Supplieth</italic>, active verb, indicative mood, present, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative <italic>he</italic>, understood. <italic>Him</italic>, as before, governed by <italic>supplieth</italic>. <italic>With</italic>, preposition. <italic>Food</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>with</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph><italic>The</italic>, as before. <italic>Piety</italic>, substantive, singular, nominative case. <italic>Of</italic>, as before. <italic>A</italic>, indefinite article. <italic>Child</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>of</italic>. <italic>Is</italic>, irregular neuter verb <italic>to be</italic>, indicative mood, present, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative, <italic>piety</italic>. <italic>Sweeter</italic>, adjective, comparative degree. <italic>Than</italic>, conjunction disjunctive. <italic>The</italic>, as before. <italic>Incense</italic>, substantive, singular, nominative case, coupled with <italic>piety</italic> by <italic>than</italic>. <italic>Of</italic>, as before. <italic>Persia</italic>, proper name, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>of</italic>. <italic>Offered</italic>, passive participle of <italic>to offer</italic>. <italic>To the</italic>, as before. <italic>Sun</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>to</italic>. <italic>Yea</italic>, adverb. <italic>More delicious</italic>, adjective, comparative degree. <italic>Than</italic>, as before. <italic>Odours</italic>, substantive, plural, nominative case, coupled with <italic>piety</italic> by <italic>than</italic>. <italic>Wafted</italic>, participle passive of <italic>to waft</italic>. <italic>From a</italic>, as before. <italic>Field</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>from</italic>. <italic>Of</italic>, as before. <italic>Arabian</italic>, adjective. <italic>Spices</italic>, substantive, plural, oblique case, governed by <italic>of</italic>. <italic>By</italic>, preposition. <italic>The</italic>, as before. <italic>Western</italic>, adjective. <italic>Gales</italic>, substantive, plural, oblique case, governed by <italic>by</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph><italic>Be</italic>, irregular neuter verb <italic>to be</italic>, imperative mood, <pagebreak page_no="90"/>second person singular. <italic>Grateful</italic>, adjective. <italic>Then</italic> adverb. <italic>To thy</italic>, as before. <italic>Father</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>to</italic>. <italic>For</italic>, conjunction casual. <italic>He</italic>, as before. <italic>Gave</italic>, irregular verb active, indicative mood, imperfectly past tense, third person singular, agreeing with <italic>he</italic>. <italic>Thee</italic>, personal pronoun, second person singular, oblique case. <italic>Life</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>gave</italic>. <italic>And to thy</italic>, as before. <italic>Mother</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>to</italic>. <italic>For</italic>, as before. <italic>She</italic>, pronoun personal, third person singular, feminine gender, nominative case, supplying the place of <italic>mother</italic>. <italic>Sustained</italic>, verb active, indicative mood, imperfectly past, third person singular, agreeing with <italic>she</italic>. <italic>Thee</italic>, as before, governed by <italic>sustained</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph><italic>Hear</italic>, verb active, imperative mood, second person singular. <italic>The</italic>, as before. <italic>Words</italic>, substantive, plural, oblique case, governed by <italic>hear</italic>. <italic>Of his</italic>, as before. <italic>Mouth</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>of</italic>. <italic>For</italic>, as before. <italic>They</italic>, as before, supplying the place of <italic>words</italic>. <italic>Are spoken</italic>, irregular passive verb, indicative mood, present, third person plural, agreeing with <italic>they</italic>. <italic>For</italic>, preposition. <italic>Thy</italic>, as before. <italic>Good</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>for</italic>. <italic>Give</italic>, verb active, imperative mood, second person singular. <italic>Ear</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>give</italic>. <italic>To his</italic>, as before. <italic>Admonition</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>to</italic>. <italic>For</italic>, conjunction, as before. <italic>It</italic>, pronoun personal, third person singular, neuter, nominative case, supplying the place of <italic>admonition</italic>. <italic>Proceedeth</italic>, verb neuter, indicative mood, present, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative case <italic>it</italic>. <italic>From</italic>, as before. <italic>Love</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>from</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph><italic>He</italic>, as before. <italic>Hath watched</italic>, verb active, indicative mood, past tense, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative <italic>he</italic>. <italic>For</italic>, preposition. <italic>Thy</italic>, as before. <italic>Welfare</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, <pagebreak page_no="91"/>governed by <italic>for</italic>. <italic>He</italic>, as before. <italic>Hath toiled</italic>, verb neuter, indicative mood, past tense, third person singular, agreeing with <italic>he</italic>. <italic>For</italic>, preposition. <italic>Thy</italic>, as before. <italic>Ease</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>for</italic>. <italic>Do</italic>, irregular verb active, imperative mood, second person singular. <italic>Honour</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>do</italic>. <italic>Therefore</italic>, adverb. <italic>To his</italic>, as before. <italic>Age</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>to</italic>. <italic>And</italic>, as before. <italic>Let</italic>, as before. <italic>Not</italic>, adverb. <italic>His</italic>, as before. <italic>Grey</italic>, adjective. <italic>Hairs</italic>, substantive, plural, oblique case, governed by <italic>let</italic>. <italic>Be</italic>, irregular verb, neuter, imperfect mood, third person plural. <italic>Created</italic>, participle passive of <italic>to treat</italic>. <italic>With</italic>, as before. <italic>Irreverence</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>with</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph><italic>Forget</italic>, verb active, imperative mood, second person singular. <italic>Not thy</italic>, as before. <italic>Helpless</italic>, adjective. <italic>Infancy</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>forget</italic>. <italic>Nor</italic>, conjunction disjunctive. <italic>The</italic>, as before. <italic>Frowardness</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, coupled with <italic>infancy</italic> by <italic>nor</italic>. <italic>Of thy</italic>, as before. <italic>Youth</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>of</italic>. <italic>And</italic>, as before. <italic>Indulge</italic>, verb active, imperative mood, second person singular. <italic>The</italic>, as before. <italic>Infirmities</italic>, substantive, plural, oblique case, governed by <italic>indulge</italic>. <italic>Of thy</italic>, as before. <italic>Aged</italic>, adjective. <italic>Parents</italic>, substantive, plural, oblique case, governed by <italic>of</italic>. <italic>Assist</italic>, verb active, imperative mood, second person singular. <italic>And</italic>, as before. <italic>Support</italic>, verb active, imperative mood, second person singular. <italic>Them</italic>, personal pronoun, third person plural, oblique case, governed by <italic>assist</italic> and <italic>support</italic>. <italic>In the</italic>, as before. <italic>Decline</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>in</italic>. <italic>Of</italic>, as before. <italic>Life</italic>, as before, governed by <italic>of</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph><italic>So</italic>, adverb. <italic>Shall</italic>, auxiliary verb, third person plural. <italic>Their</italic>, pronoun possessive, third person plural, nominative case. <italic>Hoary</italic>, adjective. <italic>Heads</italic>, <pagebreak page_no="92"/>substantive, plural, nominative case. <italic>Go</italic>, verb neuter, indicative mood, first future tense, third person plural, agreeing with its nominative, <italic>heads</italic>. <italic>Down</italic>, adverb. <italic>To the</italic>, as before. <italic>Grave</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>to</italic>. <italic>In</italic>, as before. <italic>Peace</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>in</italic>. <italic>And</italic>, as before. <italic>Thine</italic>, possessive pronoun, second person singular. <italic>Own</italic>, a word added to possessive pronouns, to render them more emphatic. <italic>Children</italic>, substantive, plural, nominative case. <italic>In</italic>, as before. <italic>Reverence</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>in</italic>. <italic>Of thy</italic>, as before. <italic>Example</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>of</italic>. <italic>Shall repay</italic>, verb active, indicative mood, first future tense, third person plural, agreeing with <italic>children</italic>. <italic>Thy</italic>, as before. <italic>Piety</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>repay</italic>. <italic>With</italic>, as before. <italic>Filial</italic>, adjective. <italic>Love</italic>, substantive, singular, oblique case, governed by <italic>with</italic>.</paragraph> </div1> <div1 description="main_text" name="Prosody or the true Pronunciation of Words, and the Laws of Versification."> <heading level="1">PROSODY OR THE TRUE PRONUNCIATION OF WORDS, AND THE LAWS OF VERSIFICATION.</heading> <paragraph> <l>In Prosody we now must give the art</l> <l>Of uttering words aright, in every part;</l> <l>Where accent must be placed, and quantity,</l> <l>That they may be pronounced properly.</l> <l>As this part also doth relate to verse,</l> <l>The laws respecting it we shall rehearse.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"> <paragraph type="footnote">The word Prosody is derived from the Greek Prosōdia, and is that part of Grammar, says <reference type="quotation" judgemental="0" referenced="Johnson, Samuel">Dr. Johnson</reference>, which teaches the sound and quantity of syllables, and the measures of verse.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote"><quotation author="Johnson, Samuel" source_added="0">"It is common," says the learned doctor, "for those that deliver the grammar of modern languages, to omit the prosody; but as the laws of metre are included in the idea of grammar, I have thought it proper to insert them."</quotation></paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Prosody consists then of two parts; namely, the true utterance or pronunciation of syllables and words, and the laws respecting metre, or the composition of English verse.</paragraph> </footnote></l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="93"/> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of Accent and Quantity."> <heading level="2">OF ACCENT AND QUANTITY.</heading> <paragraph> <l>The accent marks the rise or fall of voice,</l> <l>But not according to caprice or choice;</l> <l>For rules there are to fix the short or long,</l> <l>And they must be the subject of our song.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"> <paragraph type="footnote">Pronunciation is said to be just, when every letter has its full and proper sound, and every syllable and word its proper accent; or, which in English versification is the same, its proper quantity.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">In the English language, however, accent may be considered merely as a species of emphasis; so that when one syllable of a word is distinguished by a stress, or emphasis, above the rest, it is said to be accented.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">We have before spoken of the sounds of the letters in the former part of this work; but rules for the accent or quantity of them belong to prosody, not to orthography, and they are subject to many exceptions.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Every word of one syllable is either long or short, and this is determined by the presence or absence of final <italic>e</italic>; as băd, bāde; lăd, lāde; chĭd, chīde; nŏd, nōde; tŭn, tūne.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The mark for a long sound is -; for a short one ˇ. Of this long and short syllable are all poetic feet in the English (as well as in all other languages) formed; and though <reference type="reference" judgemental="0" referenced="Horace">Horace</reference> himself makes use of no less than twenty-eight several sorts of feet, yet do they all, and many more, arise from the various combinations of long and short syllables.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The proportion of time allowed for the pronunciation of syllables is as <italic>two</italic> to <italic>one</italic>; for it requires twice the time to pronounce a <italic>long</italic> syllable that it does a <italic>short</italic> one.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">Instead of using the long and short to mark the accent in this part of prosody, we shall follow the mode which has been generally adopted, namely, of marking the syllable on which the stress or accent is to be laid with an acute, thus (´), which will answer every necessary purpose.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">The accent marks the rise or fall of the voice in discourse or reading, which indeed most people have naturally in a certain degree, except those who unfortunately indulge in what is called monotony, that is, a method of speaking always in the same tone of voice, This is more observable in persons who have a small and shallow voice, than in those of a more robust constitution, who are seldom habituated to one tone.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">In rightly placing the accent consists, as it were, the life of language, which acts by enchantment, when justly applied to well-chosen words, leads all the passions captive, and surprises even the soul itself in its inmost recesses.</paragraph> </footnote></l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="94"/> <paragraph> Words of one vowel mostly short we see, But they're made long by adding final <italic>e</italic>; Thus, <italic>ban</italic> makes <italic>ba'ne; bar, ba're; bath, ba'the; bit, bite; Can, ca'ne; din, di'ne; hop, ho'pe; pat, pa'te; quit, qu'ite</italic>. </paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="Words of Two Syllables."> <heading level="2">WORDS OF TWO SYLLABLES.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">Every English word of more than one syllable has a fixed and appropriate accent, to misplace which is to offend against the propriety of speech, no less than to pronounce the letters falsely. The accentuation of words, therefore, in the English language, may be brought under a few general rules; though several exceptions will doubtless remain.</footnote></heading> <paragraph> <l>When endings to one syllable words are joined,</l> <l>Long the first syllable you mostly find.<footnote indicator="Dagger">In words of two syllables, or dissyllables, which are formed by affixing a termination or ending to monosyllables, or words of one syllable, the accent is commonly laid on the first; as, <italic>chíldish, kíngdom, ácted, áctest, fáirer, fóremost, fúltess, gódly, lóving, meékly, scóffer, tóilsome, zeálous, peáceful, sínful, fáithless</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>When to the root you do the addition make,</l> <l>The latter mostly will the accent take.<footnote indicator="Double Dagger">Words of two syllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the root, have commonly the accent on the latter; as, <italic>to begét, to beseém, to bestów, to forecást, to retúrn</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>In words whose letters do appear the same,</l> <l>By different meaning gaining different name,</l> <l>The sense always distinguishes the sound;</l> <l>In nouns that's short, which long in verbs is found.<footnote indicator="Section Sign"><paragraph type="footnote">In words of two syllables that differ in sense, but not in the spelling, and are at once both nouns and verbs, the substantive generally has the accent on the former, and the verb on the latter syllable; thus: <table cols="2" rows="25"> <row role="heading"> <cell>Nouns: (The first syllable long.)</cell> <cell>Verbs: (The last syllable long.)</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>A'bsent.</cell> <cell>To Abse'nt.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>An A'bstract.</cell> <cell>To Abstra'ct.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>An A'ccent.</cell> <cell>To Acce'nt.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>A Ce'ment.</cell> <cell>To Ceme'nt.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>A Co'llect.</cell> <cell>To Colle'ct.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>A Co'ncert.</cell> <cell>To Conce'rt.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>A Co'nduct.</cell> <cell>To Condu'ct.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>A Co'nflict.</cell> <cell>To Confli'ct.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>A Co'nsort.</cell> <cell>To Conso'rt.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>A Co'ntest.</cell> <cell>To Conte'st.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>A Co'ntract.</cell> <cell>To Contra'ct.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>A Co'nvert.</cell> <cell>To Conve'rt.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>A Fe'rment.</cell> <cell>To Ferme'nt.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>Fre'quent.</cell> <cell>To Freque'nt.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>I'ncense.</cell> <cell>To Ince'nse.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>An O'bject.</cell> <cell>To Obje'ct.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>A Pre'sent.</cell> <cell>To Prese'nt.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>A Pro'ject.</cell> <cell>To Proje'ct.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>A Re'bel.</cell> <cell>To Rebe'l.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>A Re'cord.</cell> <cell>To Reco'rd.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>A Su'bject.</cell> <cell>To Subje'ct.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>A Su'rvey.</cell> <cell>To Surve'y.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>A To'rment.</cell> <cell>To Torme'nt.</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>A Tra'nsport.</cell> <cell>To Transpo'rt.</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">To this rule, however, there are many exceptions; for nouns frequently have the accent on the latter syllable, and some verbs have it on the first; as, nouns: <italic>deli'ght, asse'nt, perfu'me, ele'ct, profa'ne</italic>; verbs: <italic>To wa'ter, to a'mble, to a'rgue, to ba'ffle, to ba'nish, to be'ckon</italic>.</paragraph> </footnote></l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="95"/> <paragraph> <l>Words of two syllables that end in <italic>y</italic>,</l> <l>In <italic>or, our, ow, le, ish</italic>, you may descry;</l> <l>And <italic>c, er, age, en, et</italic>, the accent place</l> <l>Upon the first, and custom gives it grace.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">Words of two syllables ending in <italic>y</italic> place the accent on the former syllable; as, <italic>cra’nny, pa’rty, du'ty, na'vy</italic>: in <italic>or</italic> or <italic>our</italic>; as, <italic>e'rror, te'rror, fa'vour, ho'nour</italic>: in <italic>ow</italic>; as, <italic>sha'dow, fa'llow, wi'llow, wa'llow</italic>; except <italic>allo'w</italic>: in <italic>le</italic>; as, <italic>ba'ttle, ca'ttle, ta'ble, bi'ble</italic>: in <italic>ish</italic>; as, <italic>da'rkish, mau'kish, E'nglish</italic>: in <italic>c</italic>; as, <italic>ca'mbric, ru'bric, mu'sic</italic>: in <italic>age</italic>; as, <italic>do'tage, cou'rage, no'nage, ca'bbage</italic>: in <italic>en</italic>; as, <italic>ha'sten, le'ssen, fa'sten, lo'osen</italic>: in <italic>er</italic>; <italic>ba'ker, qua'ker, ba'tier, sca'tter</italic>: in <italic>et</italic>; as, <italic>pa'cket, pro'phet, di'et, qui'et</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="96"/> <paragraph> <l>If verbs do make their close in final <italic>e</italic>,</l> <l>The accent on the last we always see.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">Verbs consisting of two syllables, and ending in <italic>e</italic>, have the accent on the last; as, <italic>to esca'pe, to rece'de, to compo'se, to compri'se, to compu'te</italic>.</footnote></l> <l>If these a diphthong in the last do take,</l> <l>The accent on the last we always make.<footnote indicator="Dagger">Verbs which have a diphthong in the last syllable always have the accent there also; as, <italic>to concea'l, to appea'l, to appea'se, to revea'l</italic>.</footnote></l> <l>Or if two consonants the same do close,</l> <l>No other syllable the accent knows.<footnote indicator="Double Dagger">Verbs which end in two consonants have the accent on the last syllable; as, <italic>to ame'nd, to atte'nd, to prete’nd, to comme'nd</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Nouns of two syllables are often seen,</l> <l>With diphthongs in the last, as well I ween;</l> <l>And when it happens that this is the case,</l> <l>The accent on the last we mostly place;</l> <l>But sometimes on the first its seat will be,</l> <l>As in the note you certainly may see.<footnote indicator="Section Sign">When nouns of two syllables have a diphthong in the latter syllable, they frequently have the accent on that syllable; as, <italic>applau'se, arra'y, displa'y, ano'int, abroa'd, approa'ch</italic>; but sometimes the accent is on the first; as, <italic>ba'rgain, a’nguish, cu'rtain, mou'ntain, fou'ntain</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>When nouns which of two syllables partake,</l> <l>Have vowels two, pronounc'd quite separate,</l> <l>The first to the first syllable will cleave,</l> <l>The other to the last we always leave.<footnote indicator="Double Vertical Line">Nouns of two syllables that have two vowels, which are separated in their pronunciation, have always the accent on the first; as, <italic>li'on, ri'ot, ti'or, ru'in, gi'ant</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="Words of Three Syllables."> <heading level="2">WORDS OF THREE SYLLABLES.</heading> <paragraph> <l>If to dissyllables an ending's bound,</l> <l>That which before was long maintains its sound.<footnote indicator="Pillcrow">Trisyllables, or words of three syllables, which are formed by the addition of a syllable to those which before consisted only of two, retain the accent of the primitive word; as, <italic>beau'tiful, du'tiful, li'veliness, lo'veliness, rea'diness, conte'mner, agree’ment, comme'nding, assu'rance</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="97"/> <paragraph> <l>If to such words a syllable's prefix'd,</l> <l>The accent on the root is always fix’d.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">So, if a syllable be prefixed to a word consisting of two syllables, the accent of the primitive word is likewise retained; as, <italic>bespa'tter, inco'nstant, unple'asant, unwo'rthy, ackno'wledge, unle'arned, une'qual, unfu'itful</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Words of three syllables that end in <italic>ous</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Al</italic>, or <italic>ion</italic>, accent the first; as, <italic>a'rduous</italic>,</l> <l>And <italic>ma'rvellous</italic>: in <italic>al</italic>; as, <italic>ca'pital</italic>,</l> <l><italic>A'nimal, se'nsual</italic>: likewise in e ;</l> <l>As, <italic>sa'nction, me'ntion, pe'nsion</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Words of three syllables that end in <italic>at</italic></l> <l><italic>Ent, ce</italic>, accent the first; as, <italic>propagate</italic>,</l> <l><italic>A'rrogate, a'bdicate</italic>, and <italic>de'rogate</italic>.</l> <l><italic>Mai'ntenance, cou'ntenance</italic>, and <italic>e'legance</italic>,</l> <l><italic>E'loquence, re'verence</italic>, and <italic>a'rrogance</italic>.</l> <l>And those which have their close in <italic>ent</italic>;</l> <l><italic>Di'ligent, te'stament</italic>, and <italic>co'ntinent</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>When words accented on the last give rise</l> <l>To words in <italic>ce</italic>, which need be no surprise,</l> <l>The accent in the midst will take its chance;</l> <l>As, <italic>adhe'rence, defi'ance, reli'ance</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Words of three syllables that end in <italic>y</italic></l> <l>Take accent on the first; as, <italic>mo'desty</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Vi'ctory, su'bsidy</italic>, and <italic>li'berty</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>The accent's on the first of words in <italic>ude</italic>;</l> <l><italic>Lo'ngitude, la'titude</italic>, and <italic>fo'rtitude</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>The accent's in the midst of words in <italic>tor</italic>;</l> <l><italic>Specta'tor, testa'tor</italic>, and <italic>crea'tor</italic>:</l> <l>But to this rule exception we may find,</l> <l><italic>O'rator, se'nator</italic>, and all such kind.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>If in the midst a diphthong shall be found,</l> <l>The accent in that place will take its ground.<footnote indicator="Dagger">As, <italic>endea'vour, displea'sure, unsou'ndness</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="Words of Four or More Syllables."> <heading level="2">WORDS OF FOUR OR MORE SYLLABLES.</heading> <paragraph> <l>Words of this kind most commonly retain</l> <l>The accent of the words whence they are ta'en.<footnote indicator="Double Dagger">Words of four or more syllables, generally called <italic>polysyllables</italic>, because they consist of many syllables, mostly retain the accent of the words from whence they are derived; thus, <italic>co'mpetency, ho'nourable, innu'merable, commu'nicableness, incomprehe'nsible</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="98"/> <paragraph> <l>But those which have their close in <italic>ion</italic>,</l> <l>Accent the last but <italic>two</italic>, perhaps but <italic>one</italic>.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">Words of four or more syllables that end in <italic>ion</italic>, have the accent on the last syllable but <italic>two</italic>, or rather <italic>one</italic>, for <italic>tion</italic> is usually sounded <italic>shon</italic>, as if it were but one syllable; as, <italic>salva'tion, admira'tion, interroga'tion, indigna'tion, revolu'tion</italic>.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Those words which make their end in <italic>ator</italic>,</l> <l>Accent the last but one; <italic>dedica'tor</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Fabrica'tor</italic>, and <italic>prevarica'tor</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>And those which have their close in <italic>ty</italic>,</l> <l>Accent the last but two; <italic>acti'vity</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Ferti'lity</italic>, and even <italic>decli'vity</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>So those which make their ending <italic>ous</italic>,</l> <l>Observe a similar rule; <italic>uxo'rious</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Luxu'rious</italic>, likewise <italic>conte'ntious</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Some too which make their end in <italic>ble</italic>,</l> <l>Accent the first we see; <italic>a'micable</italic>.</l> <l>Sometimes, however, this rule is passed by,</l> <l>And on the second, th' accent we descry,</l> <l>As in <italic>ado'rable</italic>. And 'tis decreed</l> <l>That words in <italic>bly</italic> the same rule always need.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>If vowels 'fore two consonants will be,</l> <l>The second takes it, as its right, we see;</l> <l>As in <italic>combu'stible, conde'mnable</italic>,</l> <l><italic>Rema'rkable</italic>, likewise <italic>comme'ndable</italic>.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Some words of many syllables are found</l> <l>Of several vowels to extend the sound;</l> <l>The third, fourth, fifth, and even the last but one;</l> <l>But still the last is of the weaker tone.<footnote indicator="Dagger">Some polysyllables, or words of many syllables, seem to have two accents, or two syllables on which the stress is laid in utterance; as, the second, third, fourth, or fifth vowel from the last, though the quantity of the latter be not so loudly sounded in the delivery. Thus: <italic>i'gnomi'ny, ne'cessa'ry, au'dito'ry, a'rbitra'ry, a'mbula'tory, a'nnive'rsary, ma'gnani'mity, ha'bitabi'lity, a'ntiqua'ry, a'limo'ny, co'mpatibi'lity, corru'ptibi'lity, co'mpre'hensibi'lity, i'ncomprehe'nsibi'lity, i'ncorru'ptibi'lity</italic>: but words of this length can seldom or never be admitted in poetical composition.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="99"/> <paragraph> <l>Four or more syllables that end in <italic>ness</italic>,</l> <l>The first and last long syllables confess.<footnote indicator="Asterisk"><paragraph type="footnote">As, <italic>ri'ghteousne'ss, te'diousne'ss, va'riablene'ss</italic>; except <italic>despi'tefulne'ss, forge’tfulne'ss</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph type="footnote">It may be necessary to observe, that the above rules are not advanced as complete or infallible, but they are proposed as useful. Almost every rule of every language has its exceptions; and in English, as in other tongues, much must be learned by example and authority.</paragraph></footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Back to the vowels now convey your eye,</l> <l>And there some rules of quantity descry,</l> <l>In words that many syllables deny.</l> <l>Or the beginning of the present Part,</l> <l>Where rules are given agreeably to art.<footnote indicator="Dagger">See p. 92, &c.</footnote></l> <l>In general they short or long are found,</l> <l>But those which to such consonants are bound,</l> <l>As close the lips, can ne'er extend the sound.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Emphatic words we justly still produce;</l> <l>But ev’ry sign is short by sacred use.<footnote indicator="Double Dagger"> <paragraph type="footnote">All the signs are short, except a particular emphasis be laid upon them, which is seldom the case: these signs are, <italic>a, an, the, for, by, with, to, from</italic>, &c.; but whatever word of one syllable ends with a letter that closes the mouth can never be long.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">A vowel or syllable is long when the accent is on the vowel; which occasions it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following letters; as, fāll, bāle, mōōd, hōūse, crēāture.</paragraph> <paragraph type="footnote">A syllable is short when the accent is on the consonant; which occasions the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter; as, ăct, băn, băttle, bănĭsh, gŏblĕt.</paragraph> </footnote></l> </paragraph> </div2> </div1> <div1 description="main_text" name="Of Versification; or, the Laws of Poetical Composition."> <heading level="1">OF VERSIFICATION; OR, THE LAWS OF POETICAL COMPOSITION.<footnote indicator="Section Sign">As there are very few persons who do not sometimes amuse themselves with reading poetical compositions; and as the perusal of this lively and forcible mode of exhibiting nature and sentiment may, when chaste and judicious, be an innocent and instructive employment of a moderate portion of our time, it seems necessary to give the student some idea of that part of Grammar which explains the principles of versification, and which we shall accompany with examples; so that in reading poetry he may be the better able to judge of its correctness, and relish its beauties.</footnote></heading> <paragraph> <l>The laws respecting poetry, or verse,</l> <l>As part of Grammar, we shall now rehearse.</l> <folio folio_no="G2"/> <pagebreak page_no="100"/> <l>Ranging of syllables therefore doth consist</l> <l>In certain rules, which no one can resist.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Two or three syllables English feet compose,</l> <l>But quantities distinguish them from prose;</l> <l>By <italic>long</italic> and <italic>short</italic>, in various stations placed,</l> <l>Our English verse harmoniously is graced.<footnote indicator="Asterisk">Two or three syllables connected form a poetic foot. These are called feet, because it is by their assistance that the voice, as it were, steps along through the verse, in a measured pace; and it is necessary that the syllables which mark this regular movement of the voice should, in some measure, be distinguished from the others. This distinction was made among the ancient Romans; and the long syllable, being of more importance than the short, marked the movement. Every foot has, from nature, powers peculiar to itself; and it is upon the knowledge and proper application of these powers, that the pleasure and effect of numbers chiefly depend.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>With <italic>short</italic> and <italic>long</italic> heroic feet we raise;</l> <l>But those to vary is the poet's praise;</l> <l>For the same sounds perpetually disgust:</l> <l><reference type="reference" referenced="Dryden, John" judgemental="1">Dryden</reference> to this variety was just.<footnote indicator="Dagger">Epic, or heroic poetry, consists of five short and five long syllables intermixed, but not always so very strictly as never to change that order. The celebrated Poet-laureat, <reference type="reference" referenced="Dryden, John" judgemental="1">Mr. Dryden</reference>, has varied them <judgement type="praise" addressee_explicit="Dryden, John" tedency="positive">with admirable beauty</judgement>, beginning his heroic verse sometimes with a <italic>long</italic> syllable followed by <italic>two short</italic> ones, and other changes, which none but a master will be able to venture upon.</footnote></l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>The following marks the difference of feet,</l> <l>And of their forms the just and proper seat.</l> <l>Four forms there are <italic>two</italic> syllables contain,</l> <l>And four of <italic>three</italic> we find there will remain.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>The <small_caps>Pyrrhic</small_caps> form you easily may know:</l> <l>In <italic>two short</italic> syllables 'twill always flow.</l> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="101"/> <paragraph> <l><small_caps>Spondee</small_caps> requires <italic>two long</italic>; and then the next,</l> <l><small_caps>Iambic</small_caps>, follows close among the rest:</l> <l>Its first is <italic>short</italic>, the other must be <italic>long</italic>;</l> <l>And this it will demand in every song.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Reverse the Iambus, and you then will find</l> <l>The long one first, the short remain behind:</l> <l>This forms the <small_caps>Trochee</small_caps>. And the next in place</l> <l>The <small_caps>Dactyl</small_caps> is, which fills its proper space</l> <l>With <italic>one long</italic> syllable, and with <italic>two short</italic>,</l> <l>And always sounds the more majestic for't.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>When <italic>two</italic> that's <italic>short</italic> before <italic>one long</italic> we find,</l> <l>The <small_caps>Anapœst</small_caps> to claim it is inclined.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>When with <italic>one short</italic>, then <italic>long</italic>, then <italic>short</italic> again</l> <l>We meet, the <small_caps>Amphibrach</small_caps> they form, ’tis plain.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>Three <italic>short</italic> ones then the <small_caps>Tribrach</small_caps> doth require;</l> <l>'Tis all an English poet can desire.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>Of these poetic feet, however, it will be proper, before we proceed any further, to lay before the student a short explanation:</paragraph> <paragraph>The <small_caps>Pyrrhic</small_caps> foot, which is very rapid in pronunciation, has both the words or syllables unaccented, and consequently short; as, ŏn tŏp. Thus, ĭ ĭ.</paragraph> <paragraph>The <small_caps>Spondee</small_caps> has an even, strong, and steady pace, and both the words or syllables accented; as, păle, mŏŏn. Thus, - -.</paragraph> <paragraph>The <small_caps>Iambic</small_caps> foot is of a light and sprightly nature, and is greatly used in English verse. It has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented; as, betray. Thus, ĭ -.</paragraph> <paragraph>The <small_caps>Trochee</small_caps> is the contrary to the Iambus, and is fit to express weak and languid motions.</paragraph> <paragraph>The <small_caps>Dactyl</small_caps> is very quick, and has been compared by some to the rapid motion or gallop of a horse. It has the first syllable accented, and the two last unaccented; as, lāboŭrĕr. Thus, - ĭ ĭ.</paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="102"/> <paragraph>The <small_caps>Anapœst</small_caps> is an inverted Dactyl, and has been compared to a sprightly trot, and a motion proper to excite and enrage. It has the two first syllables unaccented, and the last accented; as, cŏntrăvēne. Thus, ĭ ĭ -.</paragraph> <paragraph>The <small_caps>Amphibrach</small_caps> has the first and last syllable unaccented, and the middle one accented; as, dĕlīghtfŭl. Thus, ĭ - ĭ.</paragraph> <paragraph>The <small_caps>Tribrach</small_caps> is of a very rapid nature, as is the Pyrrhic, having all its syllables unaccented; as, ŏn thĕ tŏp. Thus, ĭ ĭ ĭ.</paragraph> <paragraph>Four of the above may be denominated principal feet, because pieces of poetry may be wholly, or chiefly, composed of any of them: such are the Iambus, the Trochee, the Dactyl, and .the Anapœst. The other four may be termed secondary feet; for their principal use is to diversify the numbers, and to improve the verse.</paragraph> <paragraph>It is not our intention to extend this part of our Grammar unnecessarily; but it seems proper to explain the nature of the principal feet, and to lay down examples from our poets of verses composed therein, that the student, whose taste leads him to this kind of exercise, may be furnished with proper information. But, first, it may not be amiss to observe, that rhyme is the correspondence or agreement of the last sound of one verse to the last sound or syllable of another</paragraph> <paragraph><small_caps>Iambic</small_caps> verses may be divided into several species, according to the number of feet or syllables of which they are composed. Thus:</paragraph> <paragraph>1. The shortest form of the English Iambic consists of an Iambus, with an additional short syllable; as, <list rend="simple"> <item>Dĭsdaīnĭng</item> <item>Complaining</item> <item>Consenting</item> <item>Repenting</item> </list> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="103"/> <paragraph>There is not any poem of this measure in the English language, but it may be met with in stanzas. The Iambus, with this addition, is like the Amphibrach.</paragraph> <paragraph>2. The second form of our Iambic measure comprises verses of four syllables, or two Iambuses; as, <quotation author="Dryden, John" source_added="0"><lg met="iambic" rhyme=""> <l>Thŏu ārt ĭn trū</l> <l>A forward youth</l> </lg></quotation> <reference judgemental="0" referenced="Dryden, John" type="reference">Dryden</reference> <quotation author="Addison" source_added="0"><lg met="iambic" rhyme="AA"> <l>Wĭth rāvĭsh'd eārs</l> <l>The monarch hears.</l> </lg></quotation> <reference type="reference" referenced="Addison" judgemental="0">Addison</reference> </paragraph> <paragraph>This form sometimes takes an additional short syllable; as, <lg met="iambic" rhyme="AA"> <l>Upōn ă moūntaĭn,</l> <l>Beside a fountain.</l> </lg> </paragraph> <paragraph>3. The third form consists of six syllables, or three Iambuses; as, <quotation author="Drayton, Michael" source_added="0"><lg met="iambic" rhyme="ABABAB"> <l>Thĭs whīle wĕ āre ăbroād,</l> <l>Shall we not touch our lyre?</l> <l>Shall we not sing an ode?</l> <l>Or shall that holy fire,</l> <l>In us that strongly glow’d,</l> <l>In this cold air expire?</l> </lg></quotation> <reference judgemental="0" referenced="Drayton, Michael" type="quotation">Drayton</reference>. <quotation author="Milton, John" source_added="0"><lg met="iambic" rhyme="AABB"> <l>Thĕ stārs wïth deēp ămāze,</l> <l>Stand fix’d in stedfast gaze,</l> <l>And will not take their flight,</l> <l>For all the morning light.</l> </lg></quotation> <reference type="quotation" referenced="Milton, John" judgemental="0">Milton</reference>. </paragraph> <paragraph>This sometimes takes an additional short syllable; as, <l>Oŭr heārts nŏ lōngĕr lānguĭsh.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>4. The fourth form is made up of eight syllables, or four Iambuses, which is the usual measure for short poems; but sometimes very long pieces are composed in it; as, <quotation author="Milton, John" source_added="0"><lg met="iambic" rhyme="AABBCC"> <l>And māy ăt last mÿ weārÿ āge</l> <l>Find out some peaceful hermitage,</l> <l>The hairy gown and mossy cell,</l> <l>Where 1 may sit, and nightly spell</l> <l>Of every star the night doth show,</l> <l>And every herb that sips the dew.</l> </lg></quotation> <reference type="quotation" referenced="Milton, John" judgemental="0">Milton</reference>. <pagebreak page_no="104"/> <quotation author="Gay, John" source_added="0"><lg met="iambic" rhyme="AABBCCDD"> <l>Frŏm nātŭre tōō I tāke my rūle,</l> <l>To shun contempt and ridicule.</l> <l>I never, with important air,</l> <l>In conversation overbear.</l> <l>Can grave and formal pass for wise,</l> <l>When men the solemn owl despise?</l> <l>My tongue within my lips I rein:</l> <l>For who talks much, must talk in vain.</l> </lg></quotation> <reference type="quotation" referenced="Gay, John" judgemental="0">Gay</reference> </paragraph> <paragraph>5. The fifth species of English Iambics, the common measure of epic or heroic and tragic poetry, consists of ten syllables, or five Iambuses; and it is frequently adopted in religious subjects; as, <quotation author="Steele, Anne" source_added="0"><lg met="iambic" rhyme="AABB"> <l>Hăppy thĕ mān, whŏse hēav'n-dĭrēctĕd fēēt</l> <l>Avoid the crowded path where sinners meet;</l> <l>Who shuns the lofty seat of impious pride;</l> <l>Of men, who dare Jehovah’s law deride.</l> </lg></quotation> <reference type="quotation" referenced="Steele, Anne" judgemental="0">Miss Steele</reference>. </paragraph> <paragraph>This is the usual measure of blank verse, or poetry without rhyme; as, <quotation author="Steele, Anne" source_added="0"><lg met="iambic" rhyme=""> <l>O thōu sŭprēme, ĕtērnăl soūrce ŏf gōōd!</l> <l>Of good, which knows no shadow of decay!</l> <l>Wilt thou, all-gracious, beam one heavenly smile;</l> <l>Break through the gloom, and raise my grov'ling soul;</l> <l>And with resistless, sweet attraction draw</l> <l>To thee, the centre of immortal joys!</l> </lg></quotation> <reference type="quotation" referenced="Steele, Anne" judgemental="0">Miss Steele</reference>. </paragraph> <paragraph>6. The sixth form of our lambics is generally called the Alexandrine measure, and consists of twelve syllables, or six Iambuses; as, <quotation author="Pope, Alexander" source_added="0"><lg met="iambic" rhyme="AA"> <l>A nēēdlĕss Alĕxāndrĭne ēnds thĕ sōng,</l> <l>That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along.</l> </lg></quotation> <reference type="quotation" referenced="Pope, Alexander" judgemental="0">Pope</reference>. <quotation author="Pope, Alexander" source_added="0"><lg met="iambic" rhyme="AA"> <l>Wăllēr wās smoōth, bŭt-Drydĕn taūght tō joīn</l> <l>The varying verse, the full resounding line,</l> <l>The long majestic march, and energy divine.</l> </lg></quotation> <reference type="quotation" referenced="Pope, Alexander" judgemental="0">Pope</reference>. </paragraph> <paragraph>Alexandrine verses are very seldom used; and when they are, it is only for the sake of variety, or in order to make the sound an echo to the sense. The pause in the Alexandrine line should be always at the sixth syllable.</paragraph> <paragraph>7. The seventh and last form of our Iambic measure <pagebreak page_no="105"/>sure is made up of fourteen syllables, or seven Iambuses; as, <l>Thĕ Lōrd dĕscēndĕd frōm ăbōve, ănd bōw'd thĕ heāvĕns hīgh.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>This kind of verse has, for a considerable time, been looked upon as too long, and has therefore been broken into a soft lyric measure, consisting of eight syllables and six, or four and three Iambuses; as, <quotation author="Gay, John" source_added="0"><lg met="iambic" rhyme="ABAB"> <l>Tŏ lŏrdlĭngs prōud I tūne my lay,</l> <l>Whŏ feāst ĭn bōw'r ŏr hāll:</l> <l>Though dukes they be, to dukes I say,</l> <l>That pride must have a fall.</l> </lg></quotation> <reference type="quotation" referenced="Gay, John" judgemental="0">Gay</reference>. <quotation author="Swift, Jonathan" source_added="0"><lg met="iambic" rhyme="ABAB"> <l>Pŏpe hās thĕ tālĕnt wēll tŏ speāk,</l> <l>Bŭt nōt tŏ reāch thĕ eār:</l> <l>His loudest voice is low and weak,</l> <l>The Dean too deaf to hear.</l> </lg></quotation> <reference type="quotation" referenced="Swift, Jonathan" judgemental="0">Swift</reference>. <quotation author="Lewis" source_added="0"><lg met="iambic" rhyme="ABAB"> <l>Whĕn āll shăll praīse, ănd ēv’ry lāy</l> <l>Devote a wreath to thee,</l> <l>That day, for come it will, that day</l> <l>Shall I lament to see.</l> </lg></quotation> <reference type="quotation" referenced="Lewis" judgemental="0">Lewis to Pope</reference>. </paragraph> <paragraph>In all the above measures the accents are to be placed on the even syllables; and every line considered by itself is more harmonious, as this rule is more strictly observed.</paragraph> <paragraph>The variations necessary to pleasure belong to the art of poetry, not to the rules of grammar.</paragraph> <paragraph><small_caps>Trochaic</small_caps> verse is of several kinds, viz:</paragraph> <paragraph>1. The shortest Trochaic verse in our language consists of a Trochee and a long syllable; as, <quotation author="Walton, Izaak" source_added="0"><lg met="trochaic" rhyme="AABBCC"> <l>Hēre wĕ māy,</l> <l>Think and pray,</l> <l>Before death</l> <l>Stops our breath:</l> <l>Other joys</l> <l>Are but toys.</l> </lg></quotation> <reference type="quotation" referenced="Walton, Izaak" source="The Compleat Angler, 1676" judgemental="0">Walton's Angler</reference>. <quotation author="Swift, Jonathan" source_added="0"><lg met="trochaic" rhyme="AABBCC"> <l>In ămāze</l> <l>Lost, I gaze:</l> <l>Can our eyes</l> <l>Reach thy size?</l> <l>May my lays</l> <l>Swell with praise,</l> <l>Worthy me,</l> <l>Worthy thee.</l> </lg></quotation> <reference type="quotation" referenced="Swift, Jonathan" judgemental="0">Swift</reference>. </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="106"/> <paragraph>2. The second English form of the Trochee consists of two feet, or four syllables, but is seldom adopted; as, <l>On thĕ moūntain</l> <l>By a fountain.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>It sometimes contains two feet, and an additional long syllable; as <l>In thĕ dāys ŏf ōld,</l> <l>Stories plainly told,</l> <l>Lovers felt annoy.</l> <italic>Old Ballad.</italic> </paragraph> <paragraph>3. The third species consists of six syllables, or three Trochees; as, <l>Whēn oŭr heārts ăre moūrnĭng.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>Or, of three Trochees and a long syllable; as, <quotation author="Pope, Alexander" source_added="0"> <l>Bÿ thĕ streāms thăt ēvĕr flōw,</l> <l>By the fragrant winds that blow</l> <l>By the hero's armed shades,</l> <l>Glitt'ring through the gloomy glades.</l> </quotation><reference type="quotation" judgemental="0" referenced="Pope, Alexander"><italic>Pope.</italic></reference> </paragraph> <paragraph>4. The fourth species consists of eight syllables, or four Trochees; as, <l>Roūnd ŭs roārs thĕ tēmpĕst loūdĕr.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>This form may take an additional long syllable; as, <l>Idlĕ, āftĕr dīnnĕr, īn hĭs chaīr,</l> <l>Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair.</l> This measure is not very common. </paragraph> <paragraph>5. The fifth species is likewise uncommon, and consists of ten syllables, or five Trochees; as, <l>All thăt wālk ŏn foōt, ŏr rīde ĭn chāriŏts, </l> <l>All that dwell in palaces or garrets.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>6. The sixth form consists of twelve syllables, or six Trochees; as, <l>On ă moūntaĭn, strētch’d bĕneāth ă hoār˘y wīllŏw,</l> <l>Lay a shepherd swain, and view’d the rolling billow.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>This seems to be the longest Trochaic line that the English language admits; and it is to be observed, that in all these measures the accent is to be placed on the odd syllables.</paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="107"/> <paragraph>The <small_caps>Dactylic</small_caps> measure is very uncommon; as, <l>Frōm thĕ lŏw pleāsŭres ŏf thīs făllĕn nātŭre,</l> <l>Rise we to higher, &c.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>The <small_caps>Anapœstic</small_caps> verses are divided into several species; thus:</paragraph> <paragraph>1. The shortest Anapœstic verse consists of three syllables, or a single Anapœst; as, <l>Bŭt ĭn vaīn</l> <l>They complain.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>This measure is rather ambiguous; for, by laying the stress of the accent on the first and third syllable, it would become Trochaic. Therefore, the first and simplest form of our genuine Anapœstic verse is made up of two Anapœsts, or six syllables; as, <l>Bŭt hĭs coūrăge 'găn faīl,</l> <l>For no arts could prevail.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>This form admits an additional short syllable; as, <l>Thĕn hĭs coūrăge 'găn faīl hĭm,</l> <l>For no arts could avail him.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>2. The second species consists of three Anapœsts, or nine syllables; as, <l>O yĕ woōds, sprĕad yoŭr brānchĕs ăpāce,</l> <l>To your deepest recesses I fly;</l> <l>I would hide from the beasts of the cnace;</l> <l>I would vanish from every eye.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>This pleasing measure is much used, both in solemn and cheerful subjects.</paragraph> <paragraph>3. The third species consists of twelve syllables, or four Anapœsts; as, <quotation author="Pope, Alexander" source_added="0"> <l>Măy I gōvĕrn m˘y pāssiŏns wĭth ābsŏlŭte swāy,</l> <l>And grow wiser and better as life wears away.</l> </quotation> <reference type="quotation" judgemental="0" referenced="Pope, Alexander">Dr. Pope.</reference> <quotation author="Watts, Isaac" source_added="0"> <l>Whĕn thĕ treēs ăre ăl bāre, nŏt ă leāf tŏ bĕ seēn,</l> <l>And all nature disrob'd of her mantle of green,</l> <l>When the peasant, inactive, stands shiv'ring with cold,</l> <l>And the innocent flock runs for shelter to fold</l> <l>Tĭs thĕ voīce ŏf thĕ slūggărd: I heār hĭm cŏmplaĭn,</l> <l>You have wak'd me too soon, I must slumber again.</l> <l>As the door on its hinges, so he on his bed</l> <l>Tŭrns hĭs sīdes, ănd hĭs shoūldĕrs, ănd hĭs hēavy heād.</l> </quotation> <reference type="quotation" judgemental="0" referenced="Watts, Isaac">Dr. Watts.</reference> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="108"/> <paragraph>In this last line, says its excellent author, the natural and proper accent lies not on the word <italic>his</italic>, where the verse seems to require it; but on the word <italic>heavy</italic>: yet it happens to have a sort of beauty in it here, to keep the natural accent, and thereby you show the <italic>heaviness of the sluggard</italic> more emphatically, while he suffers not the verse to run swift, but smooth and harmonious.</paragraph> <paragraph>In the first two lines of the following quotation a short syllable is added, but it does not affect the melody: <l>'Twĭxt thĕ sōns ŏf thĕ stāge, wĭthoŭt pēnsiŏns ŏr plācĕs,</l> <l>And the vagabond Jews, are some similar cases;</l> <l>Since time out of mind, or they're wrong'd much by slander,</l> <l>Both lawless, alike, have been sentenc'd to wander,</l> <l>Then faith 'tis full time, we appeal to the nation,</l> <l>To be join'd in this bill for <italic>na-tu-ra-li-za-tion</italic>;</l> <l>Lard, that word's so uncouth! - 'tis so irksome to speak it!</l> <l>But 'tis Hebrew, I believe, and that's taste, as I take it.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>The above is part of a prologue to the Merchant of Venice, by Cunningham, when the bill passed for naturalizing the Jews. The last line is lengthened.</paragraph> <paragraph>The Anapœstic verse likewise admits of a short syllable at the end of the following line, as well as in the two first of the preceding example; thus: <l>On thĕ wārm cheĕk ŏf yōuth, smĭles ănd rōsĕs ăre blēnding.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>And in this measure a syllable is frequently retrenched from the first foot; as, <quotation author="Dryden, John" source_added="0"> <l>Whĕn prēsĕnt wĕ lōve, ănd whĕn ābsĕnt ăgrēe,</l> <l>I think not of Iris, nor Iris of me.</l> </quotation> <reference type="quotation" judgemental="0" referenced="Dryden, John"><italic>Dryden.</italic></reference> <quotation author="Cunningham" source_added="0"> <l>On Sūndăy, bĕdēck'd ĭn hĭs hōmespŭn ărrāy,</l> <l>At church he's the loudest to chaunt or to pray;</l> <l>He sits to a dinner of plain English food,</l> <l>Though simple the pudding, his appetite's good</l> <l>At night, when the priest and exciseman are gone,</l> <l>He quaffs at the alehouse with Roger and John,</l> <l>Then reels to his pillow, and dreams of no ill;</l> <l>No monarch more bless'd than the man of the mill.</l> </quotation> <reference type="quotation" judgemental="0" referenced="Cunningham">The Miller, by Cunningham.</reference> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="109"/> <paragraph>The above measures are the different forms of the principal feet: they may be varied by many combinations, and sometimes by double endings, either with or without rhyme; so that, to these measures, and their laws, may be reduced every species of English verse.</paragraph> <paragraph>English versification admits but of few licenses, except a <small_caps>Synalœpha</small_caps>; for, <l>By Synalœpha final vowels give way,</l> <l>That those in front of following words may stay.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>This is an elision of the letter <italic>e</italic> in <italic>the</italic> before a vowel; as, <quotation author="Watts, Isaac" source_added="0"> <l>Th' eternal God will not disdain</l> <l>To hear an infant sing.</l> </quotation> <reference type="quotation" judgemental="0" referenced="Watts, Isaac">Dr. Watts.</reference> </paragraph> <paragraph>And sometimes of <italic>o</italic> in <italic>to</italic>, when it occurs in a similar situation; as, <l>T' express ourselves with modesty.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> Another license or liberty which the laws of versification allows, is that called <small_caps>Synœresis</small_caps>, by which two short vowels coalesce into one syllable; as, <italic>question</italic>, <italic>special</italic>, where <italic>cial</italic> and <italic>tion</italic> are pronounced as one syllable only: or a word is contracted by the expulsion of a short vowel before a liquid, that is, before <italic>l, m, n, r</italic>. Or, <l>Synœresis whenever it indites,</l> <l>Still into one two syllables unites.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>Thus; by the elision of <italic>e</italic>: <quotation author="Thomson" source_added="0"> <l>To breathe th' enliv'ning spirit, and to fix</l> <l>The gen’rous purpose in the glowing breast.</l> </quotation> <reference type="quotation" referenced="Thomson" judgemental="0">Thomson.</reference> </paragraph> <paragraph><italic>Even</italic> is frequently contracted into one syllable; as, <quotation author="Broome." source_added="0"> <l>Yet ev'n athirst he sweetly sings</l> <l>Of Nectar and Elysian springs.</l> </quotation> <reference type="quotation" judgemental="0" referenced="Broome">Broome.</reference> </paragraph> <paragraph>The vowel <italic>i</italic> is sometimes omitted by elision; as, <quotation author="Swift, Jonathan" source_added="0"> <l>My sister transcrib'd it last night to his sorrow,</l> <l>And the public shall see't if I live till to-morrow.</l> </quotation> <reference type="quotation" judgemental="0" referenced="Swift, Jonathan">Swift.</reference> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="110"/> <paragraph>So <italic>it is</italic> and <italic>it was</italic> are frequently contracted; as, <quotation author="Broome" source_added="0"> <l>Now, from thy bosom doom’d to stray,</l> <l>'Tis only beauteous in decay.</l> </quotation> <reference type="quotation" judgemental="0" referenced="Broome">Broome.</reference> <quotation author="Broome" source_added="0"> <l>'Twas sung of old how one Amphion,</l> <l>Could by his verses tame a lion.</l> </quotation> <reference type="quotation" judgemental="0" referenced="Broome">Ibid.</reference> </paragraph> <paragraph>And likewise <italic>I would</italic> into <italic>I'd</italic>; as, <quotation author="Broome" source_added="0"> <l>I'd then inform you of your Cœlia's cares,</l> <l>And try the eloquence of female tears;</l> <l>Fearless I’d pass where desolation reigns,</l> <l>Tread the wild waste, or burning Lybian plains. Ibid.</l> </quotation> <reference type="quotation" judgemental="0" referenced="Broome">Ibid.</reference> </paragraph> <paragraph>We might add a great many examples of the contraction of two words into one by our most eminent poets, but the above may be sufficient to answer the purpose of an elementary treatise: the ingenious student will be able to distinguish them with great ease.</paragraph> <paragraph>If any word in a line of poetry have two sounds, which is sometimes the case, it will be proper that the sound which most favours the metre and the rhyme should be attended to.</paragraph> <paragraph>To favour the metre, is to read the syllables with distinctness, or to contract two into one, according as the metre requires; as the word glittering must make three syllables in this line: <l>All glittering in arms he stood:</l> but in the following line it makes but two; as, <l>All glitt’ring in his arms he stood.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>The metre is sometimes favoured by placing the accent on different syllables in some few words that will admit of it; as the word avenue must have the accent on the first syllable in this line: <l>Wide a'venues for cruel death:</l> but in the following line the accent must be placed on the second syllable; as, <l>A wide ave'nue to the grave.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph><italic>To favour the rhyme</italic>, is to pronounce the last word of the line so as to make it chime, or correspond in <pagebreak page_no="111"/>sound with the preceding line, where the word admits of two sorts of pronunciation; as, <l>Were I but once from bondage free,</l> <l>I'd never sell my liberty.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>Here the word <italic>liberty</italic> must be pronounced as if it were written with a double <italic>ee</italic>, to rhyme with the word <italic>free</italic>: but if the verse run thus: <l>My soul ascends above the sky</l> <l>And triumphs in her liberty;</l> the word <italic>liberty</italic> must be sounded as though it ended in <italic>i</italic>, that the word sky may have a juster rhyme to it.</paragraph> <paragraph>So in this verse: <l>Unbind my feet, and break my chain,</l> <l>For I shall ne'er rebel again.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>Here the diphthong <italic>ai</italic> must have its full sound in the word <italic>again</italic>; but in the following verse it must be pronounced <italic>agen</italic>: <l>Put Daniel in the lion’s den;</l> <l>When he's releas'd, he’ll pray again.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>We shall conclude this part of our undertaking with a few general observations, which the young student would do well to imprint on his memory. Let the poetry always answer for itself; but the reader should confine himself to the natural accent. In general, it must be maintained, that the common rules of reading prose hold good in reading all these kinds of poetry: nor is the reader under the necessity of knowing before hand what particular kind of verse he is going to read, if he will but follow the common method of pronouncing the English tongue; but let him humour the sense a little, as he ought to do in reading compositions in prose, by articulating swiftly or slowly, according to the nature of the subject, whether it be of a grave and serious, or of a light and merry cast; and if he has acquainted himself a little with the nature of verse, and accustomed himself to the perusal of poetical compositions, where <pagebreak page_no="112"/>the poet has performed his part well, the lines will yield their proper harmony.</paragraph> <paragraph>Thus it appears to be much easier to read verse well, than many persons imagine, if they would but content themselves to pronounce it as they do common language, as <reference type="legitimisation" judgemental="1" referenced="Watts, Isaac">Dr. Watts</reference> <ed_note type="correction">Dr. Watt's</ed_note> <judgement type="consent" addressee_explicit="Watts, Isaac" tedency="positive">well</judgement> observes, without affecting to add new music to the lines, by an unnatural turn and tone of the voice.</paragraph> </div1> <div1 description="main_text" name="Punctuation and Capitalisation"> <div2 description="main_text" name="The Art of Pointing."> <heading level="2">THE ART OF POINTING.</heading> <paragraph> <l>The art of pointing we must briefly show:</l> <l>It is of use for ev'ry one to know.</l> <l>All sentences in parts, the learn'd declare,</l> <l>Divided into portions truly are.</l> <l>These sev’ral parts we now shall make appear,</l> <l>And show by rules, which are exceeding clear.</l> <l>These stops point out with truth the time of pause</l> <l>A sentence doth require at ev'ry clause.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph> <l>At every <small_caps>Comma</small_caps> stop while <italic>one</italic> you count.</l> <l>At <small_caps>Semicolon</small_caps> <italic>two</italic> is the amount,</l> <l>A <small_caps>Colon</small_caps> doth require the time of <italic>three</italic>,</l> <l>The <small_caps>Period</small_caps> <italic>four</italic>, as you below may see.</l> </paragraph> <paragraph>The use of points or stops is for the purpose of dividing a written composition into sentences or parts of sentences, marking the different pauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require.</paragraph> <paragraph>The stops or pauses, which are considered as intervals in reading, are no more than four; though there be other marks to be taken notice of, but for other purposes. Their names are as follow: <table cols="2" rows="4"> <row role="data"> <cell>The <small_caps>Comma</small_caps>, marked thus</cell> <cell>,</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>The <small_caps>Semicolon</small_caps></cell> <cell>;</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>The <small_caps>Colon</small_caps></cell> <cell>:</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>The <small_caps>Period</small_caps>, or full point</cell> <cell>.</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="113"/> <paragraph>In the following brief observations on the points we shall be as short and comprehensive as the nature of the subject will admit, and refer the learner to the different works which have been expressly written concerning it.</paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of the Comma."> <heading level="2">OF THE COMMA.</heading> <paragraph>A comma represents the shortest pause, and consequently marks the least constructive parts of a sentence. The time a person should stop at a comma is while he may count one. Its use will be best explained by the following rules and examples:</paragraph> <paragraph>Rule I. A simple sentence has but one subject, and one finite verb; therefore it requires no comma: or, the nominative case of the noun must not be separated from the verb by the insertion of a comma: or, the antecedent cannot be separated from the verb by a comma; as, "It is honourable to be a friend to the unfortunate." "All finery is a mark of littleness."</paragraph> <paragraph>II. When the connexion of the different parts of a simple sentence is interrupted by an imperfect phrase (which contains no assertion, or does not amount to a proposition or sentence), a comma is introduced before and after it; as, "The tutor, by instruction and discipline, lays the foundation of the pupil's future honour." "Charity, like the sun, brightens all its objects."</paragraph> <paragraph>III. When two or more nouns occur in the same construction, they are parted by commas; as, "Self-conceit, presumption, and obstinacy, destroy the prospect of many a youth." "In our health, life, possessions, connexions, or pleasures, there are causes of decay imperceptibly working."</paragraph> <paragraph>IV. Two or more adjectives belonging to the same substantive are separated by commas; as, "He was an active, industrious, prosperous, and wealthy person." "An upright mind will discern what is just and true, lovely, honest, and of good report."</paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="114"/> <paragraph>V. Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, and immediately following one another, are separated by commas; as, "A friend unbosoms freely, advises justly, assists readily, adventures boldly, takes all patiently, defends resolutely, and continues a friend unchangeably."</paragraph> <paragraph>VI. Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding each other, are separated by commas; as, "To live soberly, righteously, and piously, comprehends the whole of our duty."</paragraph> <paragraph>VII. When a conjunction is divided by a phrase or sentence from the verb to which it belongs, it is separated by commas; as, "Christianity has discouraged, and, in some degree, abolished slavery."</paragraph> <paragraph>VIII. Expressions in a direct address are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as, "Continue, my dear children, to make virtue your principal study."</paragraph> <paragraph>IX. The case absolute, and the infinitive mood absolute, are separated by commas from the body of the sentence; as, "His father dying, he succeeded to the estate."</paragraph> <paragraph>X. Nouns in apposition, that is, added by way of illustration, when accompanied with adjuncts, are set off by commas; as, "The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun." "Hope, the balm of life, soothes us under every misfortune."</paragraph> <paragraph>XI. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with some marked variety, they require to be distinguished by a comma; as, "It is the province of superiors to direct, of inferiors, to obey; of the learned, to be instructive, of the ignorant, to be docile; of the old, to be communicative, of the young, to be advisable and diligent."</paragraph> <paragraph>We are aware that some gentlemen will consider this as rather stiff pointing; but, if they closely attend to the following example, which is a case in point, their scruples will be set aside:</paragraph> <paragraph> <quotation author="Denham, John" title="Cooper's Hill, 1642" source_added="1"><l>"Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull;</l> <l>Strong, without rage; without o’erflowing, full."</l></quotation> </paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="115"/> <paragraph>XII. When circumstances introduced are of importance they may be separated by commas; as, "Opulence increases our gratifications, and, in the same proportion, our desires and demands."</paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of the Semicolon."> <heading level="2">OF THE SEMICOLON.</heading> <paragraph>This point is used when a part of a sentence requires a greater pause than a comma, but when the sense is imperfect, and needs some other member to render it complete. The time for stopping at a semicolon is double the length of that at a comma; as, "Make a proper use of your time; for the loss of it can never be regained." "To give an early preference to honour above gain, when they stand in competition; to despise every advantage which cannot be attained without dishonest arts; to brook no meanness, and to stoop to no dissimulation; are the indications of a great mind, the presages of future eminence and usefulness in life."</paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of the Colon."> <heading level="2">OF THE COLON.</heading> <paragraph>This point requires a longer pause than that at a semicolon, and is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon; but not so independent as separate distinct sentences. It may be used in the following cases:</paragraph> <paragraph>I. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed by some further illustration of the subject; as, "Apply thyself to learning: it will redound to thine honour." "Keep close to thy business: it will keep thee from wickedness, poverty, and shame."</paragraph> <paragraph>II. When one or more semicolons have preceded, and a still greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting or concluding sentiment; as, "A divine legislator, uttering his voice from heaven; an Almighty Governor, stretching forth his arm to <pagebreak page_no="116"/>punish or reward; informing us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter for the righteous, and of indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked: these are the considerations which overawe the world, which support integrity, and check guilt."</paragraph> <paragraph>III. The colon is commonly used when an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced; as, "The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words: 'God is love.'" "He frequently said: 'I have done with the world, and am willing to leave it.'"</paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of the Period."> <heading level="2">OF THE PERIOD.</heading> <paragraph>When a sentence is so complete and independent, as not to be connected in construction with the following sentence, it is marked with a period. The pause required at a period is while a person may count four.</paragraph> <paragraph>Some sentences are independent of each other, both in their sense and construction; as, "Truth is the basis of every virtue. It is the voice of reason. Let its precepts be religiously obeyed. Never transgress its limits. Every deviation from truth is criminal. Abhor a falsehood. Let your words be ingenuous."</paragraph> <paragraph>A period should be used after every abbreviated word; as, P.S. for postscript; N.B. nota bene; A.D. anno domini; O.S. old style; N.S. new style, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph>Beside the points above mentioned, which mark the pauses in discourse, there are others which denote a different modulation of voice, in correspondence to the sense. These are, <table cols="2" rows="2"> <row role="data"> <cell>The <small_caps>Interrogation</small_caps>, marked thus</cell> <cell>?</cell> </row> <row role="data"> <cell>The <small_caps>Exclamation</small_caps>, or Admiration</cell> <cell>!</cell> </row> </table> </paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of the Interrogation."> <heading level="2">OF THE INTERROGATION.</heading> <paragraph>A note of interrogation is used when a question is asked; as, "What shall I do?" "Who will go for us?" "Will not God punish the wicked?"</paragraph> </div2> <pagebreak page_no="117"/> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of the Exclamation, or Admiration."> <heading level="2">OF THE EXCLAMATION, OR ADMIRATION.</heading> <paragraph>A note of exclamation, or admiration, is used to express sudden emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &c. ; as, "How beautiful is the face of nature!" "How majestic is the sun!"</paragraph> <paragraph> <quotation author="Milton, John" title="Paradise Lost, Book V, 1667" source_added="1"><l>"These are thy glorious works, Parent of Good!</l> <l>Almighty!! Thine this universal frame!</l> <l>How wondrous fair! Thyself how wondrous then!"</l></quotation> </paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of the Parenthesis."> <heading level="2">OF THE PARENTHESIS.</heading> <paragraph>A parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary information, or useful remark, introduced into the body of a sentence obliquely, and which may be omitted without injuring the construction; it is marked thus ( at the beginning, and ) at the end; as, <quotation author="Misc." title="King James Bible, 1611" source_added="1">"Know ye not, brethren (for I speak to them that know the law), how that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he liveth?"</quotation> "There is a certain species of religion (if we can call it by that name), which is placed wholly in speculation and belief, in the regularity of external homage, or in fiery zeal about contested opinions."</paragraph> <paragraph> <quotation author="Gray, Thomas" title="Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, 1751" source_added="0"><l>"Approach, and read (for thou canst read) the lay</l> <l>Grav'd on the stone, beneath yon aged thorn."</l></quotation> <reference type="quotation" judgemental="0" referenced="Gray, Thomas"></reference> </paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="Other Characters Made Use of in Composition."> <paragraph>Beside the above there are other characters, which are frequently made use of in composition; thus:</paragraph> <paragraph>A <small_caps>Caret</small_caps>, marked thus ^, is placed where some word happens to be left out in writing, and inserted over the line. This mark is also called a <small_caps>Circumflex</small_caps>, when placed over a vowel to denote a long syllable; as, <italic>Euphrâtes</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph>The <small_caps>Acute Accent</small_caps>; as, <italic>fáncy</italic>. — The <small_caps>Grave</small_caps>; as, <italic>fàvour</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph>A <small_caps>Hyphen</small_caps> (-) is employed in dividing a syllable at the end of a line, or in connecting compounded words; as, <italic>self-love</italic>.</paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="118"/> <paragraph>A <small_caps>Diæresis</small_caps> (··) consists of two points placed over one of the two vowels that would otherwise make a diphthong, and shows that they are to be separately pronounced; as, <italic>aërial</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph>An <small_caps>Asterisk</small_caps> (*) refers to some remark at the bottom of the page.</paragraph> <paragraph>A <small_caps>Section</small_caps> (§) marks the division of a discourse or chapter.</paragraph> <paragraph>A Paragraph (¶) denotes the beginning of a new subject, and is chiefly used in the Bible.</paragraph> <paragraph>A <small_caps>Quotation</small_caps> is marked by inverted commas; thus, " ".</paragraph> <paragraph>An <small_caps>Index</small_caps> or <small_caps>Hand</small_caps> (☞) points out a remarkable passage, or something requiring attention.</paragraph> <paragraph>A <small_caps>Brace</small_caps> } is used to join several lines together, especially a triplet in poetry, having the same rhyme.</paragraph> <paragraph><small_caps>Crotchets</small_caps> or <small_caps>Brackets</small_caps>, thus [ ], serve to inclose a word or sentence which is to be explained in a note, or the explanation itself, or a word or sentence intended to supply some deficiency, or rectify some mistake.</paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="The Use of Capital Letters."> <heading level="2">THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS.</heading> <paragraph>It was formerly the custom to begin every noun with a capital letter; but that practice being afterwards looked upon as troublesome, beside giving a crowded appearance to printed books, it was discontinued; yet it was proper to begin with a capital,</paragraph> <paragraph>1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other composition.</paragraph> <paragraph>2. The first word after a period or full point; and, if the two sentences be independent of each other, after a note of interrogation or exclamation. But if several interrogative or exclamatory sentences follow each other; or if the construction of the latter sentences depends on the former, all of them, except the first, may begin with a small letter.</paragraph> <pagebreak page_no="119"/> <paragraph>3. The appellations of the Deity.</paragraph> <paragraph>4. Proper names of persons, places, countries, towns, streets, mountains, rivers, ships, &c.</paragraph> <paragraph>5. Adjectives derived from proper names of places.</paragraph> <paragraph>6. Words of particular importance.</paragraph> <paragraph>7. The first word of a quotation, or an example.</paragraph> <paragraph>8. Every noun or principal word in the titles of books.</paragraph> <paragraph>9. The first word of every line in poetry.</paragraph> <paragraph>10. The pronoun <italic>I</italic>, and the interjection <italic>O</italic>.</paragraph> <paragraph>Other words, however, beside those above mentioned, may begin with a capital, when they are remarkably emphatical, or the principal subject of the composition.</paragraph> </div2> <div2 description="main_text" name="Of Paragraphs."> <heading level="2">OF PARAGRAPHS.</heading> <paragraph>It may not be amiss to insert a few general observations on the division of a written composition into paragraphs.</paragraph> <paragraph>Different subjects, unless they be very short, or numerous in a small compass, should be separated into paragraphs.</paragraph> <paragraph>When one subject is continued to a considerable length, the longer divisions of it should be put into paragraphs. It would be proper, when it can be done, to form the breaks at sentiments of the greatest weight, or that call for peculiar attention.</paragraph> <paragraph>The facts, premises, and conclusions of a subject, sometimes point out the separations into paragraphs; but even these, when of great length, will again require subdivisions at their most distinctive parts.</paragraph> <paragraph>In cases which require a connected subject to be formed into several paragraphs, a suitable turn of expression, exhibiting the connexion of the broken parts, will give beauty and force to the division.</paragraph> </div2> </div1> </div0> <div0 description="back_matter"> <div1 description="imprint"> <paragraph>L. Alexander, Printer, 277, Whitechapel Road.</paragraph> </div1> </div0> </grammar_text> </grammar_book>